1 1881 136 REDUCED HYPOXIC VENTILATORY RESPONSE WITH PRESERVED BLOOD OXYGENATION IN YOGA TRAINEES AND HIMALAYAN BUDDHIST MONKS AT ALTITUDE: EVIDENCE OF A DIFFERENT ADAPTIVE STRATEGY? YOGA INDUCES LONG-TERM CHANGES IN RESPIRATORY FUNCTION AND CONTROL. WE TESTED WHETHER IT REPRESENTS A SUCCESSFUL STRATEGY FOR HIGH-ALTITUDE ADAPTATION. WE COMPARED VENTILATORY, CARDIOVASCULAR AND HEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN: 12 CAUCASIAN YOGA TRAINEES AND 12 CONTROL SEA-LEVEL RESIDENTS, AT BASELINE AND AFTER 2-WEEK EXPOSURE TO HIGH ALTITUDE (PYRAMID LABORATORY, NEPAL, 5,050 M), 38 ACTIVE LIFESTYLE HIGH-ALTITUDE NATIVES (SHERPAS) AND 13 CONTEMPLATIVE LIFESTYLE HIGH-ALTITUDE NATIVES WITH PRACTICE OF YOGA-LIKE RESPIRATORY EXERCISES (BUDDHIST MONKS) STUDIED AT 5,050 M. AT BASELINE, HYPOXIC VENTILATORY RESPONSE (HVR), RED BLOOD CELL COUNT AND HEMATOCRIT WERE LOWER IN CAUCASIAN YOGA TRAINEES THAN IN CONTROLS. AFTER 14 DAYS AT ALTITUDE, YOGA TRAINEES SHOWED SIMILAR OXYGEN SATURATION, BLOOD PRESSURE, RR INTERVAL COMPARED TO CONTROLS, BUT LOWER HVR (-0.44 +/- 0.08 VS. -0.98 +/- 0.21 L/MIN/M/%SAO(2), P < 0.05), MINUTE VENTILATION (8.3 +/- 0.9 VS. 10.8 +/- 1.6 L/MIN, P < 0.05), BREATHING RATE (INDICATING HIGHER VENTILATORY EFFICIENCY), AND LOWER RED BLOOD CELL COUNT, HEMOGLOBIN, HEMATOCRIT, ALBUMIN, ERYTHROPOIETIN AND SOLUBLE TRANSFERRIN RECEPTORS. HYPOXIC VENTILATORY RESPONSE IN MONKS WAS LOWER THAN IN SHERPAS (-0.23 +/- 0.05 VS. -0.63 +/- 0.09 L/MIN/M/%SAO(2), P < 0.05); VALUES WERE SIMILAR TO BASELINE DATA OF YOGA TRAINEES AND CAUCASIAN CONTROLS, RESPECTIVELY. RED BLOOD CELL COUNT AND HEMATOCRIT WERE LOWER IN MONKS AS COMPARED TO SHERPAS. IN CONCLUSION, CAUCASIAN SUBJECTS PRACTICING YOGA MAINTAIN A SATISFACTORY OXYGEN TRANSPORT AT HIGH ALTITUDE, WITH MINIMAL INCREASE IN VENTILATION AND WITH REDUCED HEMATOLOGICAL CHANGES, RESEMBLING HIMALAYAN NATIVES. RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS INDUCED BY THE PRACTICE OF YOGA MAY REPRESENT AN EFFICIENT STRATEGY TO COPE WITH ALTITUDE-INDUCED HYPOXIA.	2007	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
2 2305  23 TRAINING ATTENTION FOR CONSCIOUS NON-REM SLEEP: THE YOGIC PRACTICE OF YOGA-NIDRA AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH. THE STUDY OF CONSCIOUSNESS WITHIN COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE HAS BEEN DOMINATED IN RECENT YEARS BY INVESTIGATIONS ORIGINATING FROM COLLABORATIONS BETWEEN NEUROSCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATORS AND BUDDHIST MEDITATION PRACTITIONERS. THE RESULTS HAVE BEEN REMARKABLE, PARTICULARLY WHEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS HAVE BEEN COMBINED AS THEY ARE IN THE NEUROPHENOMENOLOGICAL METHODOLOGY ORIGINATED BY FRANCISCO VARELA. THE ADDITION OF QUALITATIVE DATA ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE OF THE SUBJECT GREATLY ENRICHES THE INTERPRETIVE POTENTIAL OF QUANTITATIVE DATA AND HONORS THE ULTIMATE SUBJECTIVITY OF ALL PHENOMENA, IF WE ACCEPT CONSCIOUSNESS AS THE UNIVERSAL FIRST PRINCIPLE AS SOME QUANTUM PHYSICISTS NOW DO. THIS REMARKABLE PROGRESS, HOWEVER, HAS DROPPED A THREAD OF INQUIRY BEGUN IN THE LATE 1960S BY THE MENNINGER FOUNDATION IN TOPEKA, KANSAS (THE UNITED STATES) UNDER THE LEADERSHIP OF ELMER AND ALYCE GREEN. THEIR STUDIES OF THE CONSCIOUS CONTROL OF INVOLUNTARY PROCESSES DREW ON COLLABORATION WITH AN INDIAN MASTER OF YOGA MEDITATION, SWAMI RAMA OF THE HIMALAYAS, WHICH OPENED A NUMBER OF INTRIGUING POSSIBILITIES, WHICH HAVE YET TO BE FOLLOWED UP IN DETAIL WITH THE MOST RECENT RESEARCH TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES. AMONG THESE IS THE ABILITY TO ENTER THE DEEPEST, NON-REM DELTA WAVE SLEEP WHILE MAINTAINING AWARENESS BOTH INTERNALLY AND OF ONE'S SURROUNDINGS (YOGA-NIDRA). THE PARTICULAR INTEREST IN THIS ABILITY LIES NOT ONLY IN THE BENEFITS THAT ACCRUE FROM ESPECIALLY DEEP RELAXATION AND AN ESPECIALLY PURE EXPERIENCE OF MINDFUL AWARENESS, BUT ALSO FROM THE YOGI'S DESCRIPTION OF THIS AS A WAY TO GRADUALLY LEARN TO ENTER THE DEEPEST STATES OF MEDITATION (SAMADHI) AND REMAIN THERE EVEN WHEN OTHERWISE ACTIVE IN THE WORLD (TURIYA). THIS CHAPTER IS ONE OF A SERIES HOPING TO ELUCIDATE THAT STATE FROM BOTH TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STATE OF YOGA-NIDRA, DRAW MEASURABLE HYPOTHESES FROM THESE DESCRIPTIONS AND DISCUSS THE METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF CONDUCTING THESE INVESTIGATIONS WITH SUFFICIENTLY COMPETENT SAMPLES OF SUBJECTS. THE FOCUS OF THIS CHAPTER IS ON TRAINING SUBJECTS WHO CAN BECOME CAPABLE OF ENTERING THE STATE OF YOGA-NIDRA.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
3  571  13 DEFINING YOGA-NIDRA: TRADITIONAL ACCOUNTS, PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS. THE TERM YOGA-NIDRA HAS BEEN USED IN MANY EMPIRICAL STUDIES TO REFER TO RELAXATION AND GUIDED IMAGERY. THESE TECHNIQUES DO NOT REPRESENT THE INTENTION OR PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF YOGANIDRA DISCUSSED IN THE TRADITIONAL YOGA LITERATURE. WE PROPOSE AN OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF YOGA-NIDRA THAT IS SUPPORTED BY SEVERAL PHYSIOLOGICALLY TESTABLE HYPOTHESES REGARDING ITS OUTCOMES AND EFFECTS. TRADITIONAL DESCRIPTIONS OF YOGA-NIDRA AND CONTEMPORARY ACCOUNTS OF ITS PRACTICE ARE REVIEWED, AND STUDIES EXAMINING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF YOGA-NIDRA ARE EXAMINED. PROPOSED HYPOTHESES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH USING THIS OPERATIONAL DEFINITION ARE PROVIDED.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
4 1347  23 HYPOXIA IN CNS PATHOLOGIES: EMERGING ROLE OF MIRNA-BASED NEUROTHERAPEUTICS AND YOGA BASED ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES. CELLULAR RESPIRATION IS A VITAL PROCESS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF LIFE. ANY CONDITION THAT RESULTS IN DEPRIVATION OF OXYGEN (ALSO TERMED AS HYPOXIA) MAY EVENTUALLY LEAD TO DELETERIOUS EFFECTS ON THE FUNCTIONING OF TISSUES. BRAIN BEING THE HIGHEST CONSUMER OF OXYGEN IS PRONE TO INCREASED RISK OF HYPOXIA-INDUCED NEUROLOGICAL INSULTS. THIS IN TURN HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH MANY DISEASES OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) SUCH AS STROKE, ALZHEIMER'S, ENCEPHALOPATHY ETC. ALTHOUGH SEVERAL STUDIES HAVE INVESTIGATED THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING ISCHEMIC/HYPOXIC CNS DISEASES, THE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT PROTECTIVE THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES TO AMELIORATE THE AFFECTED NEURONAL CELLS IS MEAGER. THIS HAS AUGMENTED THE NEED TO IMPROVE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE HYPOXIC AND ISCHEMIC EVENTS OCCURRING IN THE BRAIN AND IDENTIFY NOVEL AND ALTERNATE TREATMENT MODALITIES FOR SUCH INSULTS. MICRORNA (MIRNAS), SMALL NON-CODING RNA MOLECULES, HAVE RECENTLY EMERGED AS POTENTIAL NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS AS WELL AS TARGETS, UNDER HYPOXIC CONDITIONS. THESE 18-22 NUCLEOTIDE LONG RNA MOLECULES ARE PROFUSELY PRESENT IN BRAIN AND OTHER ORGANS AND FUNCTION AS GENE REGULATORS BY CLEAVING AND SILENCING THE GENE EXPRESSION. IN BRAIN, THESE ARE KNOWN TO BE INVOLVED IN NEURONAL DIFFERENTIATION AND PLASTICITY. THEREFORE, TARGETING MIRNA EXPRESSION REPRESENTS A NOVEL THERAPEUTIC APPROACH TO INTERCEDE AGAINST HYPOXIC AND ISCHEMIC BRAIN INJURY. IN THE FIRST PART OF THIS REVIEW, WE WILL DISCUSS THE NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES CAUSED AS A RESULT OF HYPOXIA, FOLLOWED BY THE CONTRIBUTION OF HYPOXIA IN THE NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. SECONDLY, WE WILL PROVIDE RECENT UPDATES AND INSIGHTS INTO THE ROLES OF MIRNA IN THE REGULATION OF GENES IN OXYGEN AND GLUCOSE DEPRIVED BRAIN IN ASSOCIATION WITH CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS AND HOW THESE CAN BE TARGETED AS NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS FOR CNS INJURIES. FINALLY, WE WILL EMPHASIZE ON ALTERNATE BREATHING OR YOGIC INTERVENTIONS TO OVERCOME THE HYPOXIA ASSOCIATED ANOMALIES THAT COULD ULTIMATELY LEAD TO IMPROVEMENT IN CEREBRAL PERFUSION.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
5 1305  26 HATHA YOGA PRACTICES: ENERGY EXPENDITURE, RESPIRATORY CHANGES AND INTENSITY OF EXERCISE. THE AIM OF THIS STUDY WAS TO CRITICALLY OBSERVE THE ENERGY EXPENDITURE, EXERCISE INTENSITY AND RESPIRATORY CHANGES DURING A FULL YOGA PRACTICE SESSION. OXYGEN CONSUMPTION ([FORMULA: SEE TEXT]), CARBON DIOXIDE OUTPUT ([FORMULA: SEE TEXT]), PULMONARY VENTILATION ([FORMULA: SEE TEXT]E), RESPIRATORY RATE (FR) AND TIDAL VOLUME (VT), WERE MEASURED IN 16 PHYSICAL POSTURE (ASANAS), FIVE YOGA BREATHING MANEUVERS (BM) AND TWO TYPES OF MEDITATION. TWENTY MALE (AGE 27.3 +/- 3.5 YEARS, HEIGHT 166.6 +/- 5.4 CM AND BODY WEIGHT 58.8 +/- 9.6 KG) YOGA INSTRUCTORS WERE STUDIED. THEIR MAXIMAL OXYGEN CONSUMPTION ([FORMULA: SEE TEXT]) WAS RECORDED. THE EXERCISE INTENSITY IN ASANAS WAS EXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGE [FORMULA: SEE TEXT] . IN ASANAS, EXERCISE INTENSITY VARIED FROM 9.9 TO 26.5% OF [FORMULA: SEE TEXT] . HIGHEST ENERGY COST WAS 3.02 KCAL MIN(-1). IN BM HIGHEST [FORMULA: SEE TEXT]E WAS 53.7 +/- 15.5 L MIN(-1). VT WAS 0.97 +/- 0.59, 1.41 +/- 1.27 AND 1.28 +/- L/BREATH WITH CORRESPONDING FR OF 14.0 +/- 5.3, 10.0 +/- 6.35, 10.0 +/- 5.8 BREATHS/MIN. AVERAGE ENERGY EXPENDITURE IN ASANAS, BM AND MEDITATION WERE 2.29, 1.91 AND 1.37 KCAL MIN(-1), RESPECTIVELY. METABOLIC RATE WAS GENERALLY IN THE RANGE OF 1-2 METABOLIC EQUIVALENTS (MET) EXCEPT IN THREE ASANAS WHERE IT WAS >2 MET. [FORMULA: SEE TEXT] WAS 0.27 +/- 0.05 AND 0.24 +/- 0.04 L MIN(-1) IN MEDITATION AND SHAVASANA, RESPECTIVELY. ALTHOUGH YOGIC PRACTICES ARE LOW INTENSITY EXERCISES WITHIN LACTATE THRESHOLD, PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT IS POSSIBLE OWING TO BOTH BETTER ECONOMY OF BREATHING BY BM AND ALSO BY IMPROVEMENT IN CARDIOVASCULAR RESERVE. OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BETTER RELAXATION MAY CONTRIBUTE TO IT.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
6  438  34 CARDIOVASCULAR AND RESPIRATORY EFFECT OF YOGIC SLOW BREATHING IN THE YOGA BEGINNER: WHAT IS THE BEST APPROACH? SLOW BREATHING INCREASES CARDIAC-VAGAL BAROREFLEX SENSITIVITY (BRS), IMPROVES OXYGEN SATURATION, LOWERS BLOOD PRESSURE, AND REDUCES ANXIETY. WITHIN THE YOGA TRADITION SLOW BREATHING IS OFTEN PAIRED WITH A CONTRACTION OF THE GLOTTIS MUSCLES. THIS RESISTANCE BREATH "UJJAYI" IS PERFORMED AT VARIOUS RATES AND RATIOS OF INSPIRATION/EXPIRATION. TO TEST WHETHER UJJAYI HAD ADDITIONAL POSITIVE EFFECTS TO SLOW BREATHING, WE COMPARED BRS AND VENTILATORY CONTROL UNDER DIFFERENT BREATHING PATTERNS (EQUAL/UNEQUAL INSPIRATION/EXPIRATION AT 6 BREATH/MIN, WITH/WITHOUT UJJAYI), IN 17 YOGA-NAIVE YOUNG HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS. BRS INCREASED WITH SLOW BREATHING TECHNIQUES WITH OR WITHOUT EXPIRATORY UJJAYI (P < 0.05 OR HIGHER) EXCEPT WITH INSPIRATORY + EXPIRATORY UJJAYI. THE MAXIMAL INCREASE IN BRS AND DECREASE IN BLOOD PRESSURE WERE FOUND IN SLOW BREATHING WITH EQUAL INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION. THIS CORRESPONDED WITH A SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENT IN OXYGEN SATURATION WITHOUT INCREASE IN HEART RATE AND VENTILATION. UJJAYI SHOWED SIMILAR INCREASE IN OXYGEN SATURATION BUT SLIGHTLY LESSER IMPROVEMENT IN BAROREFLEX SENSITIVITY WITH NO CHANGE IN BLOOD PRESSURE. THE SLOW BREATHING WITH EQUAL INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION SEEMS THE BEST TECHNIQUE FOR IMPROVING BAROREFLEX SENSITIVITY IN YOGA-NAIVE SUBJECTS. THE EFFECTS OF UJJAYI SEEMS DEPENDENT ON INCREASED INTRATHORACIC PRESSURE THAT REQUIRES GREATER EFFORT THAN NORMAL SLOW BREATHING.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
7 1191  17 EVOLUTION FROM FOUR MENTAL STATES TO THE HIGHEST STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS: A NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEDITATION AS DEFINED IN YOGA TEXTS. THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES A THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION TO STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND REVIEWS NEUROSCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS OF MEDITATION. THE DIFFERENT STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS CONSIST OF FOUR MENTAL STATES, I.E., CANCALATA (RANDOM THINKING), EKAGRATA (NON-MEDITATIVE FOCUSING), DHARNA (FOCUSED MEDITATION), AND DHYANA (MEDITATION) AS DEFINED IN YOGA TEXTS. MEDITATION IS A SELF-REGULATED MENTAL PROCESS ASSOCIATED WITH DEEP RELAXATION AND INCREASED INTERNALIZED ATTENTION. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS ON MEDITATION REPORTED CHANGES IN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNALS AND NEUROIMAGING MEASURES. BUT MOST OUTCOMES OF MEDITATION STUDIES SHOWED INCONSISTENT RESULTS, THIS MAY BE DUE TO HETEROGENEITY IN MEDITATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES EVOLVED IN THE LAST 200 YEARS. TRADITIONALLY, THE FEATURES OF MEDITATION INCLUDE THE CAPACITY TO SUSTAIN A HEIGHTENED AWARENESS OF THOUGHTS, BEHAVIORS, EMOTIONS, AND PERCEPTIONS. GENERALLY, MEDITATION INVOLVES NON-REACTIVE EFFORTLESS MONITORING OF THE CONTENT OF EXPERIENCE FROM MOMENT TO MOMENT. FOCUSED MEDITATION PRACTICE INVOLVES AWARENESS ON A SINGLE OBJECT AND OPEN MONITORING MEDITATION IS A NON-DIRECTIVE MEDITATION INVOLVED ATTENTION IN BREATHING, MANTRA, OR SOUND. THEREFORE, RESULTS OF FEW EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF ADVANCED MEDITATORS OR BEGINNERS REMAIN TENTATIVE. THIS IS AN ATTEMPT TO COMPILE THE MEDITATION-RELATED CHANGES IN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEUROIMAGING PROCESSES AMONG EXPERIENCED AND NOVICE PRACTITIONERS.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
8 1985  13 SOME THOUGHTS ON NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF YOGA. YOGA PRESENTS THE CULMINATION OF EFFORTS MADE BY MANKIND TILL NOW CONTROL MIND AND BEHAVIOUR. IT IS LIVING SCIENCE, PRACTICED IN AN ELEMENTARY FASHION BY MANY IN INDIA. WHILE A FEW PERHAPS ARE THERE WHO HAVE ATTAINED MASTERY OF THIS SCIENCE.THE BACKGROUND OF THE DERIVATION AND CONCEPT OF YOGA IN INDIA IS PRESENTED FOLLOWED BY A SIMPLE EXPOSITION OF YOGIC PRACTICES AND SOME POSSIBLE NEUROPHYSIOLOGIC EXPLANATIONS. RESEARCH IN YOGA WILL BE REWARDING AS IT GIVES MEANS OF EXPLORING AND ENLARGING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN.	1981	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
9 2067  29 THE CONSCIOUSNESS STATE OF TRADITIONAL NIDRA YOGA/MODERN YOGA NIDRA: PHENOMENOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND PRELIMINARY INSIGHTS FROM AN EEG STUDY. NIDRA YOGA IS AN ANCIENT YOGIC PRACTICE CAPABLE OF INDUCING ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS CHARACTERIZED BY DEEP RELAXATION, STRONG CONCENTRATION, ACUTE SELF-AWARENESS, AND JOY. IN MODERN CONTEMPLATIVE NEUROSCIENCE LANGUAGE, IT IS KNOWN BY THE NAME YOGA NIDRA, AND FEW STUDIES HAVE INVESTIGATED ITS PHENOMENOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS. SIX HEALTHY VOLUNTEERS (FOUR FEMALES AGED 31-74) PERFORMED 12 YOGA NIDRA SESSIONS GUIDED BY AN EXPERT DURING A 6-DAY RETREAT. EACH SESSION CONSISTED OF 10 MINUTES IN A RESTING STATE (BASELINE) FOLLOWED BY 2 HOURS OF YOGA NIDRA. PSYCHOMETRIC DATA REGARDING DISSOCIATIVE EXPERIENCES (CLINICIAN ADMINISTERED DISSOCIATIVE STATES SCALE) AND THE STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS (PHENOMENOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESS INVENTORY) WERE COLLECTED AFTER BASELINE AND YOGA NIDRA, WHILE HIGH-DENSITY EEG WAS RECORDED DURING THE ENTIRE SESSION. DURING NIDRA SESSIONS, NO SLEEP HALLMARKS (I.E., K-COMPLEXES AND SLEEP SPINDLES) WERE DETECTED BY THE EEG IN ANY SUBJECT. PSYCHOMETRIC DATA WE RE ANALYZED USING A WILCOXON SIGNED-RANK TEST CORRECTED WITH THE FALSE DISCOVERY RATE APPROACH FOR MULTIPLE COMPARISONS. COMPARED TO BASELINE, YOGA NIDRA PRACTICE WAS RELATED TO: (1) INCREASED DISSOCIATIVE EFFECTS (P = 0.022); (2) PERCEPTION OF BEING IN AN ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS (P = 0.026); (3) ALTERATIONS IN PERCEIVED BODY IMAGE (P = 0.022); (4) INCREASED "MEANINGFULNESS" ATTRIBUTED TO THE EXPERIENCE (P = 0.026); (5) REDUCED RATIONAL THINKING (P = 0.029); AND (6) REDUCED VOLITIONAL THOUGHT CONTROL (P = 0.026). FIRST-PERSON EXPERIENCE IS DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO DESCRIPTIVE EEG POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY ANALYSIS, WHICH WAS PERFORMED IN ONE SUBJECT BECAUSE OF SEVERE EEG ARTIFACTS IN THE OTHER RECORDINGS; THAT SUBJECT SHOWED, COMPARED TO BASELINE: (1) EARLY INCREASE OF ALPHA AND BETA POWER, FOLLOWED BY A PROGRESSIVE WIDESPREAD REDUCTION; (2) WIDESPREAD EARLY INCREASE OF THETA POWER, FOLLOWED BY A PROGRESSIVE REDUCTION; AND (3) WIDESPREAD INCREASE OF GAMMA POWER IN THE LATEST STAGES. THE PRESENT PRELIMINARY RESULTS ENRICH THE KNOWLEDGE OF YOGA NIDRA, ELUCIDATING ITS PHENOMENOLOGY AND SUGGESTING SOME PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES THAT FUTURE STUDIES MAY ADDRESS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
10 1508  19 IS MAN ABLE TO BREATHE ONCE A MINUTE FOR AN HOUR?: THE EFFECT OF YOGA RESPIRATION ON BLOOD GASES. THE VENTILATORY RESPONSE TO HYPERCAPNIA AND ARTERIAL BLOOD GASES DURING UJJAI RESPIRATION OF ONCE PER MINUTE FOR AN HOUR WERE DETERMINED IN A PROFESSIONAL HATHA YOGI. THE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT LOWER CHEMOSENSITIVITY TO HYPERCAPNIA IN YOGA PRACTITIONERS MAY BE DUE TO AN ADAPTATION TO LOW ARTERIAL PH AND HIGH PACO2 FOR LONG PERIODS.	2002	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
11 1836  20 PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF THE PRACTICE OF TANTRIC YOGA MEDITATION. AUTONOMIC AND ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHIC (EEG) CORRELATES OF TANTRIC YOGA MEDITATION WERE STUDIED IN THREE GROUPS OF SUBJECTS AS THEY PROGRESSED FROM NORMAL CONSCIOUSNESS INTO MEDITATION. GROUPS DIFFERED IN THEIR LEVEL OF MEDITATION PROFICIENCY. MEASURES OF SKIN RESISTANCE, HEART RATE, RESPIRATION, AUTONOMIC ORIENTING RESPONSES, RESTING EEG, EEG ALPHA AND THETA FREQUENCIES, SLEEP-SCORED EEG, AVERAGED EVOKED RESPONSES, AND SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE WERE EMPLOYED. UNLIKE MOST PREVIOUSLY REPORTED MEDITATION STUDIES, PROFICIENT MEDITATORS DEMONSTRATED INCREASED AUTONOMIC ACTIVATION DURING MEDITATION WHILE UNEXPERIENCED MEDITATORS DEMONSTRATED AUTONOMIC RELAXATION. DURING MEDITATION, PROFICIENT MEDITATORS DEMONSTRATED INCREASED ALPHA AND THETA POWER, MINIMAL EVIDENCE OF EEG-DEFINED SLEEP, AND DECREASED AUTONOMIC ORIENTING TO EXTERNAL STIMULATION. AN EPISODE OF SUDDEN AUTONOMIC ACTIVATION WAS OBSERVED THAT WAS CHARACTERIZED BY THE MEDITATOR AS AN APPROACH TO THE YOGIC ECSTATIC STATE OF INTENSE CONCENTRATION. THESE FINDINGS CHALLENGE THE CURRENT "RELAXATION" MODEL OF MEDITATIVE STATES.	1978	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
12 1565  23 LOW AND THEN HIGH FREQUENCY OSCILLATIONS OF DISTINCT RIGHT CORTICAL NETWORKS ARE PROGRESSIVELY ENHANCED BY MEDIUM AND LONG TERM SATYANANDA YOGA MEDITATION PRACTICE. MEDITATION PROFICIENCY IS RELATED TO TRAIT-LIKE (LEARNED) EFFECTS ON BRAIN FUNCTION, DEVELOPED OVER TIME. PREVIOUS STUDIES SHOW INCREASES IN EEG POWER IN LOWER FREQUENCY BANDS (THETA, ALPHA) IN EXPERIENCED MEDITATORS IN BOTH MEDITATION STATES AND BASELINE CONDITIONS. HIGHER GAMMA BAND POWER HAS BEEN FOUND IN ADVANCED BUDDHIST MEDITATORS, YET IT IS NOT KNOWN IF THIS OCCURS IN YOGA MEDITATION PRACTICES. THIS STUDY USED ELORETA TO COMPARE DIFFERENCES IN CORTICAL SOURCE ACTIVITY UNDERLYING SCALP EEG FROM INTERMEDIATE (MEAN EXPERIENCE 4 YEARS) AND ADVANCED (MEAN EXPERIENCE 30 YEARS) AUSTRALIAN MEDITATORS FROM THE SATYANANDA YOGA TRADITION DURING A BODY-STEADINESS MEDITATION, MANTRA MEDITATION, AND NON-MEDITATION MENTAL CALCULATION CONDITION. INTERMEDIATE YOGA MEDITATORS SHOWED GREATER SOURCE ACTIVITY IN LOW FREQUENCIES (PARTICULARLY THETA AND ALPHA1) DURING MENTAL CALCULATION, BODY-STEADINESS AND MANTRA MEDITATION. A SIMILAR SPATIAL PATTERN OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES WAS FOUND IN ALL CONDITIONS BUT THE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT VOXELS WAS DOUBLE DURING BODY-STEADINESS AND MANTRA MEDITATION THAN IN THE NON-MEDITATION (CALCULATION) CONDITION. THESE DIFFERENCES WERE GREATEST IN RIGHT (R) SUPERIOR FRONTAL AND R PRECENTRAL GYRI AND EXTENDED BACK TO INCLUDE THE R PARIETAL AND OCCIPITAL LOBES. ADVANCED YOGA MEDITATORS SHOWED GREATER ACTIVITY IN HIGH FREQUENCIES (BETA AND ESPECIALLY GAMMA) IN ALL CONDITIONS BUT GREATLY EXPANDED DURING MEDITATION PRACTICE. ACROSS ALL CONDITIONS (MEDITATION AND NON-MEDITATION) DIFFERENCES WERE GREATEST IN THE SAME REGIONS: R INSULA, R INFERIOR FRONTAL GYRUS AND R ANTERIOR TEMPORAL LOBE. DISTINCT R CORE NETWORKS WERE IDENTIFIED IN ALPHA1 (8-10 HZ) AND GAMMA (25-42 HZ) BANDS, RESPECTIVELY. THE VOXELS RECRUITED TO THESE NETWORKS GREATLY EXPANDED DURING MEDITATION PRACTICE TO INCLUDE HOMOLOGOUS REGIONS OF THE LEFT HEMISPHERE. FUNCTIONAL INTERPRETATION PARALLELS TRADITIONALLY DESCRIBED STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN YOGA PROFICIENCY.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
13 1951  13 SCIENCE OF THE MIND: ANCIENT YOGA TEXTS AND MODERN STUDIES. THE PRACTICE OF YOGA IS GAINING IN POPULARITY WITH A WIDE RANGE OF PRACTICES. RECENT RESEARCH AND DESCRIPTIONS FROM THE ANCIENT TEXTS ARE OFTEN CONCURRENT WITH REGARD TO THE EFFECTS OF THE PRACTICE, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT EXPECTED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERN SCIENTIFIC TERMS AND THOSE USED IN THE ORIGINAL TEXTS. VOLUNTARILY REGULATED YOGA BREATHING PRACTICES FORM A BRIDGE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHANGES. THE VOLUNTARILY REGULATED YOGA BREATHING HAS DISTINCT EFFECTS ON METABOLISM, THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, HIGHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS, AND MENTAL STATE. THE EFFECTS OF MEDITATION ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND MENTAL STATE ARE EVEN CLEARER.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
14 1561  13 LONGEVITY: POTENTIAL LIFE SPAN AND HEALTH SPAN ENHANCEMENT THROUGH PRACTICE OF THE BASIC YOGA MEDITATION REGIMEN. THIS CHAPTER BRIEFLY REVIEWS RECENT PSYCHOLOGICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL, AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH WHICH HAS IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS, BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT, FOR THE RECOGNITION AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE POTENTIAL LIFE SPAN AND HEALTH SPAN ENHANCING EFFECTS OF THE BASIC YOGA MEDITATIONAL REGIMEN. THIS REGIMEN CONSISTS OF MEDITATION, YOGIC BREATH CONTROL PRACTICES, PHYSICAL EXERCISES (OF BOTH A POSTURAL- AND MOVEMENT-BASED, INCLUDING AEROBIC NATURE), AND DIETARY PRACTICES. WHILE EACH OF THESE COMPONENT CATEGORIES EXHIBIT VARIATIONS IN DIFFERENT SCHOOLS, LINEAGES, TRADITIONS, AND CULTURES, THE FOCUS OF THIS CHAPTER IS PRIMARILY ON BASIC FORMS OF RELAXATION MEDITATION AND BREATH CONTROL, AS WELL AS POSTURAL AND AEROBIC PHYSICAL EXERCISES (E.G., YOGIC PROSTRATION REGIMENS, SEE BELOW), AND A STANDARD FORM OF YOGIC OR ASCETIC DIET, ALL OF WHICH CONSTITUTE A BASIC FORM OF REGIMEN FOUND IN MANY IF NOT MOST CULTURES, THOUGH WITH VARIATIONS.	2009	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
15 1266  20 FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND BRAIN FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION IN AGING YOGA AND MEDITATION PRACTITIONERS. NUMEROUS STUDIES HAVE DOCUMENTED THE NORMAL AGE-RELATED DECLINE OF NEURAL STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE. PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT MEDITATION MAY REDUCE DECLINE IN SPECIFIC COGNITIVE DOMAINS AND IN BRAIN STRUCTURE. HERE WE EXTENDED THIS RESEARCH BY INVESTIGATING THE RELATION BETWEEN AGE AND FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND RESTING STATE BRAIN FUNCTIONAL NETWORK ARCHITECTURE USING GRAPH THEORY, IN MIDDLE-AGED YOGA AND MEDITATION PRACTITIONERS, AND MATCHED CONTROLS. FLUID INTELLIGENCE DECLINED SLOWER IN YOGA PRACTITIONERS AND MEDITATORS COMBINED THAN IN CONTROLS. RESTING STATE FUNCTIONAL NETWORKS OF YOGA PRACTITIONERS AND MEDITATORS COMBINED WERE MORE INTEGRATED AND MORE RESILIENT TO DAMAGE THAN THOSE OF CONTROLS. FURTHERMORE, MINDFULNESS WAS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH FLUID INTELLIGENCE, RESILIENCE, AND GLOBAL NETWORK EFFICIENCY. THESE FINDINGS REVEAL THE POSSIBILITY TO INCREASE RESILIENCE AND TO SLOW THE DECLINE OF FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND BRAIN FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE AND SUGGEST THAT MINDFULNESS PLAYS A MECHANISTIC ROLE IN THIS PRESERVATION.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
16 1817  12 PROPOSED IDENTIFICATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AND THEORETICAL MECHANISMS OF YOGASANAS. YOGA IN THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL FORM IS NOW ACCEPTED ALL OVER THE WORLD, BY THE RESEARCHERS AS WELL AS BY THE GENERAL POPULATION. YOGASANA OR YOGIC POSTURES ARE ONE OF THE MAIN FOUNDATIONS OF PRACTICAL YOGA. MECHANISMS OF MEDIATION AND PRANAYAMA HAS ALREADY BEEN ESTABLISHED. IN THIS ARTICLE, THE AUTHOR IS FOR THE FIRST TIME PROPOSING PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF YOGASANA I.E. (A) STRETCH (B) CONTRACTION (C). NEUROMUSCULAR COORDINATION (D) SENSE REDUCTION (E) SPINE BRAIN ACTIVATION. IN SUPPORT OF THIS PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AUTHOR HAS PROPOSED FIVE HYPOTHETICAL THEORIES I.E. (I) STRETCH RELAXATION AWARENESS (II) CONTRACTION RELAXATION AWARENESS (III) BALLASTIC CONTRACTION RELAXATION AWARENESS (IV) SENSORY MOTOR FUNCTION AWARENESS AND (V) VITAL ENERGY FLOW AWARENESS TO UNDERSTAND THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF YOGASANA PRACTICE AND TO EXPLAIN ITS BENEFITS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
17 1323  34 HEMODYNAMIC OBSERVATIONS OF TUMO YOGA PRACTITIONERS IN A HIMALAYAN ENVIRONMENT. BACKGROUND: FEW ATTEMPTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO EVALUATE THE PHYSIOLOGY OF TRADITIONAL EASTERN HEALTH PRACTICES. THE GOAL OF THIS STUDY WAS TO EVALUATE THE HEMODYNAMIC EFFECTS OF THE MYSTERIOUS BUDDHIST PRACTICE OF TUMO. TUMO IS A MEDITATIVE PRACTICE THAT PRODUCES INNER HEAT THROUGH THE ALLEGED CULTIVATION OF BODY ENERGY-CHANNELS. METHODS: THIS STUDY WAS PERFORMED BY MEMBERS OF AN INTERNATIONAL EXPEDITION TO THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS IN THE REPUBLIC OF INDIA. THE STUDY WAS PERFORMED IN AN UNPOPULATED OUTDOOR MOUNTAINOUS AREA AT AN ALTITUDE OF 16,400 FT WITH AMBIENT TEMPERATURES BETWEEN -10 AND -15( DEGREES )C. TWO (2) COHORTS OF SUBJECTS WERE STUDIED: HEALTHY NON-YOGI VOLUNTEERS AND TUMO PRACTITIONERS. ALL OF THE SUBJECTS WERE STRIPPED DOWN TO THEIR UNDERCLOTHES AND EXPOSED TO THE SUBZERO ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES FOR 5 MINUTES. THE VOLUNTEERS WERE THEN PASSIVELY REWARMED WHILE THE TUMO PRACTITIONERS PERFORMED TUMO FOR UP TO 10 MINUTES. BLOOD PRESSURE, HEART RATE, AND STROKE VOLUME INDEX (SVI) AND CARDIAC INDEX WERE MEASURED NONINVASIVELY USING A NICOM HEMODYNAMIC MONITOR, WHILE CAROTID BLOOD FLOW AND BIVENTRICULAR PERFORMANCE WERE DETERMINED ECHOCARDIOGRAPHICALLY AT EACH STAGE OF THE EXPERIMENT. THE TOTAL PERIPHERAL RESISTANCE INDEX (TPRI), LEFT VENTRICULAR EJECTION FRACTION (LVEF), AND TRICUSPID ANNULAR PLANE SYSTOLIC EXCURSION (TAPSE) WERE DETERMINED USING STANDARD FORMULA. RESULTS: FOURTEEN (14) SUBJECTS (SIX VOLUNTEERS AND EIGHT TUMO PRACTITIONERS) COMPLETED THE STUDY. THERE WAS ONE FEMALE SUBJECT IN EACH GROUP. WITH COLD EXPOSURE, THE SVI AND CAROTID BLOOD FLOW DECREASED WHILE THE TPRI INCREASED SIGNIFICANTLY IN BOTH GROUPS. IN THE VOLUNTEER GROUP, THESE CHANGES RETUNED TO BASELINE WITH REWARMING. FOLLOWING TUMO, THE CARDIAC INDEX (4.8+/-0.6 VERSUS 4.0+/-0.5 L/M(2); P<0.01), CAROTID BLOOD FLOW (445+/-127 VERSUS 325+/-100 ML/MIN/M(2), P<0.01), LVEF (68+/-5 VERSUS 64+/-7%; P<0.05) AND TAPSE (2.9+/-0.4 VERSUS 2.4+/-0.5 CM; P<0.01) WERE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER WHEN COMPARED WITH BASELINE, WHILE THE TPRI WAS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER (1786+/-189 VERSUS 2173+/-281; P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: TUMO WAS ASSOCIATED WITH A HYPERDYNAMIC VASODILATED STATE WITH INCREASED BIVENTRICULAR PERFORMANCE. WE POSTULATE THAT TUMO RESULTS IN A MASSIVE INCREASE IN SYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY WITH ACTIVATION OF BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE AND MARKED HEAT PRODUCTION. THE INCREASED HEAT PRODUCTION MAY EXPLAIN THE PARADOXICAL VASODILATATION IN TUMO PRACTITIONERS EXPOSED TO SUBZERO TEMPERATURES.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                      
18 2744  41 YOGA PRACTICE IMPROVES PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STATUS AT HIGH ALTITUDES: A PROSPECTIVE CASE-CONTROL STUDY. UNLABELLED: CONTEXT * HIGH ALTITUDE (HA) IS A PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STRESSOR FOR NATIVES OF LOWER ALTITUDES. REDUCING THE MORBIDITY AND OPTIMIZING THE PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUALS DEPLOYED IN AN HA REGION HAS BEEN ATTEMPTED AND REPORTED WITH VARIED RESULTS. OBJECTIVE * THE PRESENT STUDY INTENDED TO EXPLORE THE EFFECTS OF COMPREHENSIVE YOGIC PRACTICES ON THE HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE OF INDIAN SOLDIERS DEPLOYED AT HAS. DESIGN * THE RESEARCH TEAM DESIGNED A PROSPECTIVE, RANDOMIZED, CASE-CONTROL STUDY. SETTING: THE STUDY WAS DONE AT KARU, LEH, INDIA, AT AN ALTITUDE OF 3445 M. PARTICIPANTS * FULLY ACCLIMATIZED SOLDIERS IN THE INDIAN ARMY WERE RANDOMLY SELECTED FROM THOSE POSTED TO HA REGIONS (IE, ALTITUDES >3000 M). INTERVENTION * THE SOLDIERS WERE DIVIDED INTO 2 GROUPS OF EQUAL SIZE. THE FIRST GROUP, THE CONTROL GROUP, CARRIED OUT THE ROUTINE ACTIVITIES FOR PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE INDIAN ARMY. THE SECOND GROUP, THE INTERVENTION GROUP PRACTICED A COMPREHENSIVE YOGA PACKAGE, INCLUDING PHYSICAL ASANAS, PRANAYAMA, AND MEDITATION, AND DID NOT PERFORM THE PHYSICAL TRAINING THAT THE FIRST GROUP DID. BOTH GROUPS WERE MONITORED DURING THEIR ACTIVITIES. OUTCOME MEASURES * A WIDE AND COMPREHENSIVE RANGE OF ANTHROPOMETRICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, BIOCHEMICAL, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PARAMETERS WERE MEASURED: (1) HEIGHT AND WEIGHT; (2) BODY FAT PERCENTAGE (BFP); (3) HEART RATE (HR); (4) RESPIRATORY RATE (RR); (5) SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (DPB); (6) PERIPHERAL SATURATION OF OXYGEN; (7) END TIDAL CO2 (ETCO2); (8) CHEST EXPANSION; (9) PULMONARY FUNCTION; (10) PHYSICAL WORK CAPACITY (VO2MAX); (11) HEMATOLOGICAL VARIABLES; (12) LIPID PROFILE; (13) SERUM UREA; (14) CREATININE; (15) LIVER ENZYMES; (16) BLOOD GLUCOSE; AND (17) ANXIETY SCORES. MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE AT BASELINE AND POSTINTERVENTION. RESULTS * TWO-HUNDRED SOLDIERS TOOK PART IN THE STUDY. THE YOGA GROUP SHOWED A SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENT IN HEALTH INDICES AND PERFORMANCE AS COMPARED WITH THE CONTROL GROUP. THEY HAD LOWER WEIGHTS, BFPS, RRS, DBPS, AND ANXIETY SCORES. THEY ALSO HAD A SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER ETCO2, FORCED VITAL CAPACITY, FORCED EXPIRATORY VOLUME IN THE FIRST SECOND (FEV1), AND VO2MAX. ALSO, THE YOGA GROUP SHOWED A SIGNIFICANT REDUCTION IN SERUM CHOLESTEROL, LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN, TRIGLYCERIDES, AND BLOOD UREA AS COMPARED WITH THEIR PREYOGA LEVELS AND WITH THE EXERCISE GROUP. CONCLUSIONS * PRACTICE OF YOGA FACILITATES IMPROVEMENTS IN HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE AT HAS AND IS SUPERIOR TO ROUTINE TRAINING WITH PHYSICAL EXERCISES. COMPREHENSIVE YOGIC PRACTICES ARE AN EFFECTIVE MODALITY FOR IMPROVING HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE AT HAS.	2016	

19 1472  19 INSULAR CORTEX MEDIATES INCREASED PAIN TOLERANCE IN YOGA PRACTITIONERS. YOGA, AN INCREASINGLY POPULAR DISCIPLINE AMONG WESTERNERS, IS FREQUENTLY USED TO IMPROVE PAINFUL CONDITIONS. WE INVESTIGATED POSSIBLE NEUROANATOMICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF YOGA USING SENSORY TESTING AND MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING TECHNIQUES. NORTH AMERICAN YOGIS TOLERATED PAIN MORE THAN TWICE AS LONG AS INDIVIDUALLY MATCHED CONTROLS AND HAD MORE GRAY MATTER (GM) IN MULTIPLE BRAIN REGIONS. ACROSS SUBJECTS, INSULAR GM UNIQUELY CORRELATED WITH PAIN TOLERANCE. INSULAR GM VOLUME IN YOGIS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH YOGA EXPERIENCE, SUGGESTING A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND INSULAR SIZE. YOGIS ALSO HAD INCREASED LEFT INTRAINSULAR WHITE MATTER INTEGRITY, CONSISTENT WITH A STRENGTHENED INSULAR INTEGRATION OF NOCICEPTIVE INPUT AND PARASYMPATHETIC AUTONOMIC REGULATION. YOGIS, AS OPPOSED TO CONTROLS, USED COGNITIVE STRATEGIES INVOLVING PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVATION AND INTEROCEPTIVE AWARENESS TO TOLERATE PAIN, WHICH COULD HAVE LED TO USE-DEPENDENT HYPERTROPHY OF INSULAR CORTEX. TOGETHER, THESE FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT REGULAR AND LONG-TERM YOGA PRACTICE IMPROVES PAIN TOLERANCE IN TYPICAL NORTH AMERICANS BY TEACHING DIFFERENT WAYS TO DEAL WITH SENSORY INPUTS AND THE POTENTIAL EMOTIONAL REACTIONS ATTACHED TO THOSE INPUTS LEADING TO A CHANGE IN INSULAR BRAIN ANATOMY AND CONNECTIVITY.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
20 1496  24 INTRACEREBRAL PAIN PROCESSING IN A YOGA MASTER WHO CLAIMS NOT TO FEEL PAIN DURING MEDITATION. WE RECORDED MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG) AND FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (FMRI) FOLLOWING NOXIOUS LASER STIMULATION IN A YOGA MASTER WHO CLAIMS NOT TO FEEL PAIN WHEN MEDITATING. AS FOR BACKGROUND MEG ACTIVITY, THE POWER OF ALPHA FREQUENCY BANDS PEAKING AT AROUND 10 HZ WAS MUCH INCREASED DURING MEDITATION OVER OCCIPITAL, PARIETAL AND TEMPORAL REGIONS, WHEN COMPARED WITH THE NON-MEDITATIVE STATE, WHICH MIGHT MEAN THE SUBJECT WAS VERY RELAXED, THOUGH HE DID NOT FALL ASLEEP, DURING MEDITATION. PRIMARY PAIN-RELATED CORTICAL ACTIVITIES RECORDED FROM PRIMARY (SI) AND SECONDARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTICES (SII) BY MEG WERE VERY WEAK OR ABSENT DURING MEDITATION. AS FOR FMRI RECORDING, THERE WERE REMARKABLE CHANGES IN LEVELS OF ACTIVITY IN THE THALAMUS, SII-INSULA (MAINLY THE INSULA) AND CINGULATE CORTEX BETWEEN MEDITATION AND NON-MEDITATION. ACTIVITIES IN ALL THREE REGIONS WERE INCREASED DURING NON-MEDITATION, SIMILAR TO RESULTS IN NORMAL SUBJECTS. IN CONTRAST, ACTIVITIES IN ALL THREE REGIONS WERE WEAKER DURING MEDITATION, AND THE LEVEL WAS LOWER THAN THE BASELINE IN THE THALAMUS. RECENT NEUROIMAGING AND ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES HAVE CLARIFIED THAT THE EMOTIONAL ASPECT OF PAIN PERCEPTION MAINLY INVOLVES THE INSULA AND CINGULATE CORTEX. THOUGH WE CANNOT CLEARLY EXPLAIN THIS UNUSUAL CONDITION IN THE YOGA MASTER, A CHANGE OF MULTIPLE REGIONS RELATING TO PAIN PERCEPTION COULD BE RESPONSIBLE, SINCE PAIN IS A COMPLEX SENSORY AND EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE.	2005