1 1871 116 RANGE OF YOGA INTENSITIES FROM SAVASANA TO SWEATING: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW. BACKGROUND: THERE IS LIMITED RESEARCH EXAMINING THE INTENSITY OF YOGA AND INTENSITY VARIATIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT STYLES. THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW IS TO EXAMINE THE INTENSITY OF YOGA BASED ON DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGIC RESPONSES BOTH BETWEEN DIFFERENT YOGA STYLES AND WITHIN STYLES OF YOGA. METHODS: ARTICLES WERE SEARCHED FOR ON THE PUBMED DATABASE IN EARLY 2019. INCLUSION CRITERIA WERE AS FOLLOWS: (1) WRITTEN IN ENGLISH, (2) CITE A SPECIFIC STYLE OF YOGA AND INCLUDE WHOLE YOGA SESSION, AND (3) MEASURE METABOLIC OR HEART RATE RESPONSE. RESULTS: TEN ARTICLES WERE REVIEWED; ARTICLES REPORTED OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (N = 1), HEART RATE (N = 4), OR BOTH VARIABLES (N = 5). YOGA STYLES ASSESSED INCLUDED ASHTANGA (N = 2), BIKRAM (N = 3), GENTLE (N = 1), HATHA (N = 3), IYENGAR (N = 1), POWER (N = 1), AND VINYASA (N = 1). OXYGEN CONSUMPTION COMMONLY CATEGORIZED YOGA AS A LIGHT-INTENSITY ACTIVITY, WHILE HEART RATE RESPONSES CLASSIFIED DIFFERENT YOGA INTO MULTIPLE INTENSITIES. CONCLUSION: THIS REVIEW DEMONSTRATES THAT LARGE DIFFERENCES IN INTENSITY CLASSIFICATIONS ARE OBSERVED BETWEEN DIFFERENT STYLES OF YOGA. FURTHERMORE, METABOLIC AND HEART RATE RESPONSES CAN BE VARIABLE, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT INTENSITY CLASSIFICATIONS. THIS IS LIKELY DUE TO THEIR NONLINEAR RELATIONSHIP DURING YOGA. THUS, IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT THE FIELD OF YOGA RESEARCH WORKS TOGETHER TO CREATE A STANDARD FOR REPORTING YOGA. 2020 2 2429 24 YOGA AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE - A REVIEW AND COMPARISON. YOGA IS A MULTIFACETED SPIRITUAL TOOL WITH ENHANCED HEALTH AND WELL-BEING AS ONE OF ITS POSITIVE EFFECTS. THE COMPONENTS OF YOGA WHICH ARE VERY COMMONLY APPLIED FOR HEALTH BENEFITS ARE ASANAS (PHYSICAL POSTURES), PRANAYAMA (REGULATED BREATHING) AND MEDITATION. IN THE CONTEXT OF ASANAS, YOGA RESEMBLES MORE OF A PHYSICAL EXERCISE, WHICH MAY LEAD TO THE PERCEPTION THAT YOGA IS ANOTHER KIND OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE. THIS ARTICLE AIMS AT EXPLORING THE COMMONALITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOGA AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN TERMS OF CONCEPTS, POSSIBLE MECHANISMS AND EFFECTIVENESS FOR HEALTH BENEFITS. A NARRATIVE REVIEW IS UNDERTAKEN BASED ON TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE FOR YOGA, ALONG WITH SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES AVAILABLE ON YOGA AND EXERCISE INCLUDING HEAD-TO-HEAD COMPARATIVE TRIALS WITH HEALTHY VOLUNTEERS AND PATIENTS WITH VARIOUS DISEASE CONDITIONS. PHYSICAL EXERCISES AND THE PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF YOGA PRACTICES HAVE SEVERAL SIMILARITIES, BUT ALSO IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES. EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT YOGA INTERVENTIONS APPEAR TO BE EQUAL AND/OR SUPERIOR TO EXERCISE IN MOST OUTCOME MEASURES. EMPHASIS ON BREATH REGULATION, MINDFULNESS DURING PRACTICE, AND IMPORTANCE GIVEN TO MAINTENANCE OF POSTURES ARE SOME OF THE ELEMENTS WHICH DIFFERENTIATE YOGA PRACTICES FROM PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 2016 3 1951 17 SCIENCE OF THE MIND: ANCIENT YOGA TEXTS AND MODERN STUDIES. THE PRACTICE OF YOGA IS GAINING IN POPULARITY WITH A WIDE RANGE OF PRACTICES. RECENT RESEARCH AND DESCRIPTIONS FROM THE ANCIENT TEXTS ARE OFTEN CONCURRENT WITH REGARD TO THE EFFECTS OF THE PRACTICE, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT EXPECTED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERN SCIENTIFIC TERMS AND THOSE USED IN THE ORIGINAL TEXTS. VOLUNTARILY REGULATED YOGA BREATHING PRACTICES FORM A BRIDGE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHANGES. THE VOLUNTARILY REGULATED YOGA BREATHING HAS DISTINCT EFFECTS ON METABOLISM, THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, HIGHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS, AND MENTAL STATE. THE EFFECTS OF MEDITATION ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND MENTAL STATE ARE EVEN CLEARER. 2013 4 2369 34 WHAT ARE THE KNOWN EFFECTS OF YOGA ON THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO MOTOR PERFORMANCES, BODY AWARENESS AND PAIN? A NARRATIVE REVIEW. OBJECTIVE: THE CURRENT BODY OF LITERATURE WAS REVIEWED TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO MOTOR PERFORMANCE, BODY AWARENESS AND PAIN. BACKGROUND: YOGA HAS BEEN INCREASINGLY POPULAR IN THE WESTERN COUNTRIES ESPECIALLY FOR ITS UNIQUE INTEGRATION OF THE MIND AND BODY. YOGA HAS BEEN STUDIED MORE INTENSELY IN THE LAST DECADE. ALTHOUGH IT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO IMPROVE COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS, FEW STUDIES HAVE LOOKED INTO THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON IMPROVING MOTOR PERFORMANCE, BODY AWARENESS OR PAIN AND THE POSSIBLE UNDERLYING BRAIN MECHANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH THEM. METHODS: A SEARCH OF THE CURRENT LITERATURE WAS MADE USING KEYWORDS SUCH AS: "YOGA BRAIN MOTOR", "YOGA BRAIN PAIN", "EFFECTS YOGA BRAIN" AND "EFFECTS YOGA BRAIN MOTOR PERFORMANCE". THE FINDINGS WERE THEN DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO MOTOR PERFORMANCE, BODY AWARENESS AND PAIN AND THEIR REPORTED MECHANISMS OF ACTION ON THE BRAIN. RESULTS: A TOTAL OF 61 ARTICLES WERE SELECTED, OUT OF WHICH 29 WERE EXCLUDED BECAUSE THEY DID NOT MEET OUR CRITERIA. A TOTAL OF THIRTY-TWO ARTICLES WERE INCLUDED IN THIS REVIEW, WHICH WE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED BY FOCUS: MOTOR PERFORMANCE (N=10), BODY AWARENESS (N=14) AND PAIN (N=8). DISCUSSION: OUR REVIEW SHOWS THAT YOGA HAS A POSITIVE EFFECT ON LEARNING RATE, SPEED AND ACCURACY OF A MOTOR TASK BY INCREASING ATTENTION AND DECREASING STRESS THROUGH A BETTER CONTROL OF SENSORIMOTOR RHYTHMS. YOGA ALSO SEEMS TO IMPROVE SENSORY AWARENESS AND INTEROCEPTION, REGULATE AUTONOMIC INPUT, INCREASE PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY AND PROMOTE SELF-REGULATION. YOGA WAS ALSO SHOWN TO REDUCE THE THREAT SIGNAL, INCREASE PAIN TOLERANCE, DECREASE PAIN UNPLEASANTNESS AND DECREASE THE ANXIETY AND DISTRESS ASSOCIATED WITH PAIN. THOSE CHANGES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE RECRUITMENT OF SPECIFIC BRAIN AREAS SUCH AS THE INSULA, THE AMYGDALA AND THE HIPPOCAMPUS. CONCLUSION: BASED ON THE STUDIES REVIEWED IN THIS REPORT, WE FOUND THAT THE PRACTICE OF YOGA SEEMS TO FACILITATE MOTOR LEARNING, TO INCREASE BODY AWARENESS AND TO DECREASE PAIN. THESE ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A WIDE VARIETY OF CHANGES IN TERMS OF BRAIN ACTIVITY AND STRUCTURE. FURTHER STUDIES ARE NECESSARY TO REVEAL ITS PRECISE MECHANISM OF ACTION ON THE BRAIN AND TO VALIDATE ITS WIDER APPLICATION IN CLINICAL SETTINGS. 2019 5 1051 28 EFFECTS OF YOGA ON BRAIN WAVES AND STRUCTURAL ACTIVATION: A REVIEW. PREVIOUS RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THE VAST MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH YOGA. YOGA PRACTICE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO SUBCATEGORIES THAT INCLUDE POSTURE-HOLDING EXERCISE (ASANA), BREATHING (PRANAYAMA, KRIYA), AND MEDITATION (SAHAJ) PRACTICE. STUDIES MEASURING MENTAL HEALTH OUTCOMES HAVE SHOWN DECREASES IN ANXIETY, AND INCREASES IN COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE AFTER YOGA INTERVENTIONS. SIMILAR STUDIES HAVE ALSO SHOWN COGNITIVE ADVANTAGES AMONGST YOGA PRACTITIONERS VERSUS NON-PRACTITIONERS. THE MENTAL HEALTH AND COGNITIVE BENEFITS OF YOGA ARE EVIDENT, BUT THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE BRAIN THAT LEAD TO THIS REMAIN A TOPIC THAT LACKS CONSENSUS. THEREFORE, THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO EXAMINE AND REVIEW EXISTING LITERATURE ON THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON BRAIN WAVES AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES AND ACTIVATION. AFTER A NARROWED SEARCH THROUGH A SET OF SPECIFIC INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA, 15 ARTICLES WERE USED IN THIS REVIEW. IT WAS CONCLUDED THAT BREATHING, MEDITATION, AND POSTURE-BASED YOGA INCREASED OVERALL BRAIN WAVE ACTIVITY. INCREASES IN GRAYGRAY MATTER ALONG WITH INCREASES IN AMYGDALA AND FRONTAL CORTEX ACTIVATION WERE EVIDENT AFTER A YOGA INTERVENTION. YOGA PRACTICE MAY BE AN EFFECTIVE ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENT FOR A CLINICAL AND HEALTHY AGING POPULATION. FURTHER RESEARCH CAN EXAMINE THE EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC BRANCHES OF YOGA ON A DESIGNATED CLINICAL POPULATION. 2015 6 1964 23 SEPARATING THE "LIMBS" OF YOGA: LIMITED EFFECTS ON STRESS AND MOOD. THOUGH MILLIONS OF PEOPLE PRACTICE YOGA TO REDUCE STRESS AND IMPROVE THEIR MOOD, IT IS UNCLEAR WHICH ASPECT OF YOGA IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THESE EFFECTS. TO INVESTIGATE RELEVANT ASPECTS, OR "LIMBS" OF YOGA, PARTICIPANTS WHO WERE NOVICES IN THE PRACTICE OF YOGA ENGAGED IN A SINGLE YOGA MANIPULATION (I.E., POSES, BREATH WORK, MEDITATION, OR LISTENING TO A LECTURE ABOUT YOGA) FOR 20 MIN BEFORE EXPERIENCING A MILD STRESSOR. PARTICIPANTS' HEART RATE, BLOOD PRESSURE, MOOD, AND ANXIETY LEVEL WERE ASSESSED, BOTH IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE YOGA MANIPULATION AND AFTER THE MILD STRESSOR. THE 20-MIN YOGA MANIPULATION DID NOT DIFFERENTIALLY AFFECT ANY OF THE MEASURES, INCLUDING PARTICIPANTS' STRESS RESPONSE AFTER THE MILD STRESSOR. RESULTS ARE DISCUSSED REGARDING THE INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF A YOGA PRACTICE. 2019 7 1025 29 EFFECTS OF YOGA ASANA PRACTICE APPROACH ON TYPES OF BENEFITS EXPERIENCED. CONTEXT: MODERN SCIENCE AND THE CLASSIC TEXT ON HATHA YOGA, HATHA YOGA PRADIPIKA, REPORT PHYSICAL, MENTAL, EMOTIONAL, SPIRITUAL, AND RELATIONAL BENEFITS OF YOGA PRACTICE. WHILE ALL HAVE SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS FOR HOW TO PRACTICE, LITTLE RESEARCH HAS BEEN DONE TO ASCERTAIN WHETHER SPECIFIC PRACTICE APPROACHES IMPACT THE BENEFITS EXPERIENCED BY PRACTITIONERS. AIMS: OUR AIM WAS TO RELATE THE EXPERIENCE LEVEL OF THE PRACTITIONER, THE CONTEXT OF PRACTICE APPROACHES (TIME OF DAY, DURATION OF PRACTICE, FREQUENCY OF PRACTICE, ETC.), AND EXPERIENCE LEVEL OF THE TEACHER, TO THE LIKELIHOOD OF REPORTING PARTICULAR BENEFITS OF YOGA. METHODS: WE CONDUCTED A CROSS-SECTIONAL DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY OF YOGA PRACTITIONERS ACROSS LEVELS AND STYLES OF PRACTICE. DATA WERE COMPILED FROM A LARGE VOLUNTARY CONVENIENCE SAMPLE (N = 2620) REGARDING RESPONDENTS' METHODS OF PRACTICE, YOGA EXPERIENCE LEVELS, AND BENEFITS EXPERIENCED. MULTIPLE LOGISTIC REGRESSION WAS USED TO IDENTIFY APPROACHES TO YOGA PRACTICE THAT POSITIVELY PREDICTED PARTICULAR BENEFITS. RESULTS: FREQUENCY OF PRACTICE, EITHER WITH OR WITHOUT A TEACHER, WAS A POSITIVE PREDICTOR OF REPORTING NEARLY ALL BENEFITS OF YOGA, WITH AN INCREASED LIKELIHOOD OF EXPERIENCING MOST BENEFITS WHEN THE PRACTITIONER DID YOGA FIVE OR MORE DAYS PER WEEK. OTHER ASPECTS OF PRACTICE APPROACH, EXPERIENCE LEVEL OF THE PRACTITIONER, AND THE EXPERIENCE LEVEL OF THE TEACHER, HAD LESS EFFECT ON THE BENEFITS REPORTED. CONCLUSIONS: PRACTICE FREQUENCY OF AT LEAST 5 DAYS PER WEEK WILL PROVIDE PRACTITIONERS WITH THE GREATEST AMOUNT OF BENEFIT ACROSS ALL CATEGORIES OF BENEFITS. OTHER PRACTICE APPROACHES CAN VARY MORE WIDELY WITHOUT HAVING A MARKED IMPACT ON MOST BENEFITS EXPERIENCED. 2019 8 1698 30 PAIN-RELATED ENCEPHALIC REGIONS INFLUENCED BY YOGA MEDITATION: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW. INTRODUCTION: THE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE USE OF YOGA IN PAIN RELIEF ARE STILL UNCLEAR. THIS STUDY REVIEWED LITERATURE REPORTS ON ENCEPHALIC ACTIVITY RELATED TO ANALGESIA INDUCED BY YOGA MEDITATION PRACTICE. METHODS: THIS INTEGRATIVE REVIEW EXAMINED STUDIES PUBLISHED IN THE PUBMED, LILACS AND MEDLINE DATABASES WITHOUT RESTRICTION OF THE YEAR OF PUBLICATION. THE RESEARCH INVOLVED 16 DESCRIPTORS RELATED TO THE WORDS: YOGA, PAIN AND NEUROIMAGING METHODS. INCLUSION CRITERIA INVOLVED ONLY THE PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE ONLINE, WITH FREE ACCESS AND WRITTEN IN ENGLISH. RESULTS: 2 CASE STUDIES AND 1 PILOT STUDY MET THE CRITERIA. YOGA MEDITATION PRACTICE INDUCES ANALGESIA PRIMARILY THROUGH ATTENUATION OF THE MEDIAL PAIN PERCEPTION SYSTEM INCLUDING THE ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX AND INSULA REGIONS, AS WELL AS THE LATERAL SYSTEM INCLUDING THE SECONDARY SENSORY CORTEX AND THALAMUS. CONCLUSION: YOGA INDUCED ANALGESIA IS A POTENTIALLY IMPORTANT ADJUNCT TO CURRENT PAIN MANAGEMENT. THIS INTEGRATIVE REVIEW REVEALED THAT THERE IS A NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH THAT ANALYZES THE ENCEPHALIC REGIONS RELATED TO ANALGESIA INDUCED BY YOGA PRACTICE. 2018 9 2844 27 YOGA, DANCE, TEAM SPORTS, OR INDIVIDUAL SPORTS: DOES THE TYPE OF EXERCISE MATTER? AN ONLINE STUDY INVESTIGATING THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF EXERCISE, BODY IMAGE, AND WELL-BEING IN REGULAR EXERCISE PRACTITIONERS. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, SPECIFICALLY EXERCISING, HAS BEEN SUGGESTED TO IMPROVE BODY IMAGE, MENTAL HEALTH, AND WELL-BEING. WITH RESPECT TO BODY IMAGE, PREVIOUS FINDINGS HIGHLIGHT A GENERAL BENEFIT OF EXERCISE. THIS STUDY INVESTIGATES WHETHER THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXERCISING AND BODY IMAGE VARIES WITH THE TYPE OF EXERCISE THAT INDIVIDUALS PREFERENTIALLY AND REGULARLY ENGAGE IN. IN ADDITION, PHYSICAL EFFICACY WAS EXPLORED AS A POTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL MEDIATOR BETWEEN TYPE OF EXERCISE AND BODY IMAGE. USING A CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN, HEALTHY REGULAR EXERCISE PRACTITIONERS OF YOGA, BALLROOM DANCE, TEAM SPORTS, OR INDIVIDUAL SPORTS AS WELL AS HEALTHY ADULTS REPORTING NO REGULAR EXERCISING WERE SURVEYED. BODY IMAGE AND ITS DIFFERENT FACETS WERE ASSESSED BY A SET OF STANDARDIZED SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRES, COVERING PERCEPTUAL, COGNITIVE, AND AFFECTIVE BODY IMAGE DIMENSIONS PARTICULARLY RELATED TO NEGATIVE BODY IMAGE. IN ADDITION, PARTICIPANTS WERE QUESTIONED WITH REGARD TO MENTAL HEALTH. PARTICIPANTS WERE 270 HEALTHY ADULTS. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS, MEASURES OF VARIANCE (ANOVA), AND MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH ORTHOGONAL CONTRASTS WERE PERFORMED TO INVESTIGATE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT EXERCISE AND NON-EXERCISE GROUPS IN THE VARIABLES OF INTEREST. IN LINE WITH THE HYPOTHESES AND PREVIOUS FINDINGS, THE STATISTIC COMPARISONS REVEALED THAT BODY DISSATISFACTION (AS ONE IMPORTANT FACTOR OF NEGATIVE BODY IMAGE) WAS MOST PRONOUNCED IN THE NON-EXERCISE GROUP COMPARED TO ALL EXERCISE GROUPS [CONTRAST: NO EXERCISE VERSUS EXERCISE (ALL GROUPS TAKEN TOGETHER)]. PHYSICAL EFFICACY, AS ASSESSED WITH A STANDARDIZED QUESTIONNAIRE, MEDIATED THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPE OF EXERCISE (USING CONTRASTS) AND BODY IMAGE INCLUDING PERCEPTUAL, COGNITIVE, AND AFFECTIVE BODY IMAGE DIMENSIONS. THE FINDINGS SHED LIGHT ON SO FAR LESS SYSTEMATICALLY INVESTIGATED QUESTIONS REGARDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TYPES OF EXERCISE, LIKE YOGA AND BALLROOM DANCE, AND BODY IMAGE. THE RESULTS UNDERSCORE THE RELEVANCE OF CONSIDERING POSSIBLE INFLUENCING FACTORS IN EXERCISE RESEARCH, SUCH AS THE PERCEPTION OF ONE'S PHYSICAL EFFICACY AS A MEDIATOR OF THIS RELATIONSHIP. 2021 10 2377 22 WHO PRACTICES YOGA? A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF DEMOGRAPHIC, HEALTH-RELATED, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH YOGA PRACTICE. YOGA HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY POPULAR IN THE US AND AROUND THE WORLD, YET BECAUSE MOST YOGA RESEARCH IS CONDUCTED AS CLINICAL TRIALS OR EXPERIMENTS, LITTLE IS KNOWN ABOUT THE CHARACTERISTICS AND CORRELATES OF PEOPLE WHO INDEPENDENTLY CHOOSE TO PRACTICE YOGA. WE CONDUCTED A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THIS ISSUE, IDENTIFYING 55 STUDIES AND CATEGORIZING CORRELATES OF YOGA PRACTICE INTO SOCIODEMOGRAPHICS, PSYCHOSOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WELL-BEING. YOGA USE IS GREATEST AMONG WOMEN AND THOSE WITH HIGHER SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND APPEARS FAVORABLY RELATED TO PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS SUCH AS COPING AND MINDFULNESS. YOGA PRACTICE OFTEN RELATES TO BETTER SUBJECTIVE HEALTH AND HEALTH BEHAVIORS BUT ALSO WITH MORE DISTRESS AND PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT. HOWEVER, EVIDENCE IS SPARSE AND METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS PRECLUDE DRAWING CAUSAL INFERENCES. NATIONALLY REPRESENTATIVE STUDIES HAVE MINIMALLY ASSESSED YOGA WHILE STUDIES WITH STRONG ASSESSMENT OF YOGA PRACTICE (E.G., TYPE, DOSE) ARE GENERALLY CONDUCTED WITH CONVENIENCE SAMPLES. ALMOST ALL STUDIES REVIEWED ARE CROSS-SECTIONAL AND FEW CONTROL FOR POTENTIAL CONFOUNDING VARIABLES. WE PROVIDE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THE CORRELATES OF YOGA PRACTICE. 2015 11 413 32 BLOOD PRESSURE RESPONSE TO MEDITATION AND YOGA: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS. OBJECTIVES: TO INTRODUCE RESEARCH THAT PRESENTS SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE REGARDING THE EFFECTS OF MANTRA AND MINDFULNESS MEDITATION TECHNIQUES AND YOGA ON DECREASING BLOOD PRESSURE (BP) IN PATIENTS WHO HAVE HYPERTENSION. METHODS: A LITERATURE SEARCH WAS PERFORMED TO IDENTIFY ALL STUDIES PUBLISHED BETWEEN 1946 AND 2014 FROM PERIODICALS INDEXED IN OVID MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PSYCINFO, KOREAMED, AND NDSL BY USING THE FOLLOWING KEYWORDS: "HYPERTENSION," "BLOOD PRESSURE," "PSYCHOTHERAPY," "RELAXATION THERAPY," "MEDITATION," "YOGA," AND "MIND-BODY THERAPY." THE COCHRANE'S RISK OF BIAS WAS APPLIED TO ASSESS THE INTERNAL VALIDITY OF THE RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL STUDIES. THIRTEEN STUDIES WERE ANALYZED IN THIS META-ANALYSIS BY USING REVIEW MANAGER 5.3. RESULTS: AMONG 510 POSSIBLE STUDIES, 13 MET THE SELECTION CRITERIA. SEVEN EXAMINED MEDITATION, AND SIX EXAMINED YOGA. THE META-ANALYSIS INDICATED THAT MEDITATION AND YOGA APPEARED TO DECREASE BOTH SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BP, WHICH WERE WITHIN SIMILAR BASELINE RANGES, AND THE REDUCTION WAS STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT; HOWEVER, SOME RESULTS SHOWED LITTLE DIFFERENCE. AFTER AN IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF THOSE RESULTS, BP RANGE AND PATIENT AGE WERE REVEALED AS THE FACTORS THAT AFFECTED THE DIFFERENT RESULTS IN SOME REPORTS. IN PARTICULAR, MEDITATION PLAYED A NOTICEABLE ROLE IN DECREASING THE BP OF SUBJECTS OLDER THAN 60 YEARS OF AGE, WHEREAS YOGA SEEMED TO CONTRIBUTE TO THE DECREASE OF SUBJECTS AGED LESS THAN 60 YEARS. CONCLUSIONS: WHILE ACKNOWLEDGING THE LIMITATIONS OF THIS RESEARCH DUE TO THE DIFFERENCES IN BP AND THE PARTICIPANTS' AGES, MEDITATION AND YOGA ARE DEMONSTRATED TO BE EFFECTIVE ALTERNATIVES TO PHARMACOTHERAPY. GIVEN THAT BP DECREASED WITH THE USE OF MEDITATION AND YOGA, AND THIS EFFECT VARIED IN DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS, SCIENTIFICALLY MEASURED OUTCOMES INDICATE THAT THESE PRACTICES ARE SAFE ALTERNATIVES IN SOME CASES. 2017 12 2409 34 YOGA AND HEART RATE VARIABILITY: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. HEART RATE VARIABILITY (HRV) HAS BEEN USED AS A PROXY FOR HEALTH AND FITNESS AND INDICATOR OF AUTONOMIC REGULATION AND THEREFORE, APPEARS WELL PLACED TO ASSESS THE CHANGES OCCURRING WITH MIND.-BODY PRACTICES THAT FACILITATE AUTONOMIC BALANCE. WHILE MANY STUDIES SUGGEST THAT YOGA INFLUENCES HRV, SUCH STUDIES HAVE NOT BEEN SYSTEMATICALLY REVIEWED. WE AIMED TO SYSTEMATICALLY REVIEW ALL PUBLISHED PAPERS THAT REPORT ON YOGA PRACTICES AND HRV. A COMPREHENSIVE SEARCH OF MULTIPLE DATABASES WAS CONDUCTED AND ALL STUDIES THAT REPORTED A MEASURE OF HRV ASSOCIATED WITH ANY YOGA PRACTICE WERE INCLUDED. STUDIES WERE CATEGORIZED BY THE STUDY DESIGN AND TYPE OF YOGA PRACTICE. A TOTAL OF 59 STUDIES WERE REVIEWED INVOLVING A TOTAL OF 2358 PARTICIPANTS. MOST STUDIES WERE PERFORMED IN INDIA ON RELATIVELY SMALL NUMBERS OF HEALTHY MALE YOGA PRACTITIONERS DURING A SINGLE LABORATORY SESSION. OF THE REVIEWED STUDIES, 15 WERE RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS WITH 6 HAVING A JADAD SCORE OF 3. THE REVIEWED STUDIES SUGGEST THAT YOGA CAN AFFECT CARDIAC AUTONOMIC REGULATION WITH INCREASED HRV AND VAGAL DOMINANCE DURING YOGA PRACTICES. REGULAR YOGA PRACTITIONERS WERE ALSO FOUND TO HAVE INCREASED VAGAL TONE AT REST COMPARED TO NON-YOGA PRACTITIONERS. IT IS PREMATURE TO DRAW ANY FIRM CONCLUSIONS ABOUT YOGA AND HRV AS MOST STUDIES WERE OF POOR QUALITY, WITH SMALL SAMPLE SIZES AND INSUFFICIENT REPORTING OF STUDY DESIGN AND STATISTICAL METHODS. RIGOROUS STUDIES WITH DETAILED REPORTING OF YOGA PRACTICES AND ANY CORRESPONDING CHANGES IN RESPIRATION ARE REQUIRED TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF YOGA ON HRV. 2016 13 1338 24 HOW DOES YOGA REDUCE STRESS? EMBODIED COGNITION AND EMOTION HIGHLIGHT THE INFLUENCE OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM. YOGA IS AN INCREASINGLY POPULAR ACTIVITY, PERHAPS BECAUSE OF ITS ASSOCIATION WITH STRESS REDUCTION AND RELAXATION - AN ASSOCIATION THAT IS GENERALLY SUPPORTED BY EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE. UNDERSTANDING OF THE MEDIATING VARIABLES IS, HOWEVER, LIMITED. GIVEN THAT, THE PURPOSE OF THIS PAPER IS TO PRESENT A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE THAT ENCOURAGES SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH REGARDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA, STRESS, AND MUSCULOSKELETAL ACTIVITY. THIS EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE PARALLELS POPULAR INTEREST IN THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION AND EMPHASIZES THE INFLUENCE OF BODY POSITION ON THINKING AS WELL AS EMOTION. THOSE INFLUENCES TAKE ON ADDED MEANING IN THE CONTEXT OF THE COGNITIVE APPRAISAL THEORY AND THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF CHALLENGE AND THREAT. INVESTIGATIONS OF EMBODIED COGNITION SUGGEST THAT YOGA MAY REDUCE STRESS BY AFFECTING THE WAY INDIVIDUALS APPRAISE STRESSORS. THE COMBINATION OF BODY POSITION AND COMMON COMPONENTS OF YOGA PRACTICE MAY ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO THAT EFFECT, PARTICULARLY WHEN CONSIDERING THOUGHTS ABOUT THE SELF AND FEELINGS OF CONFIDENCE. FINDINGS REGARDING EMBODIED EMOTION MAKE A SIMILAR CONTRIBUTION TO UNDERSTANDING THE IMPLICATIONS OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH FINDINGS AND COMMON YOGA PRACTICES. CONSIDERING YOGA AND STRESS FROM AN EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE ALSO HIGHLIGHTS THE ROLE OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM IN THE STRESS PROCESS, LEADING TO THE QUESTION OF WHETHER YOGA INFLUENCES STRESS BY DIRECTLY INFLUENCING THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM, INDIRECTLY BY INFLUENCING AWARENESS OF THAT SYSTEM, OR THROUGH A COMBINATION OF THE TWO. THOSE QUESTIONS, IN TURN, HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE OF EXPANDING INVESTIGATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES, BODY POSITION, MUSCULOSKELETAL ACTIVITY DURING YOGA, AND THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THOSE VARIABLES. 2019 14 2426 28 YOGA AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH: INTEGRATIVE REVIEW OF INTERVENTION STUDIES. BACKGROUND: EFFECTS OF YOGA ON PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED IN SEVERAL FIELDS. OBJECTIVE: TO INVESTIGATE AND ANALYZE RESULTS OF YOGA INTERVENTIONS IN THE WORKPLACE REPORTED ALONG 10 YEARS AFTER THE FORMULATION OF THE NATIONAL POLICY OF INTEGRATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY PRACTICES. METHOD: WE LOCATED 10 STUDIES PUBLISHED FROM 2006 TO 2015 WHICH MET THE INCLUSION CRITERIA, INCLUDED IN DATABASES CUMULATIVE INDEX OF NURSING AND ALLIED HEALTH LITERATURE (CINAHL), MEDICAL LITERATURE ANALYSES AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM ONLINE (MEDLINE), WEB OF SCIENCE, SCOPUS, COCHRANE AND SCIENTIFIC ELECTRONIC LIBRARY ONLINE (SCIELO). ANALYZED VARIABLES WERE: PUBLICATION YEAR, AUTHORSHIP, TITLE, AIMS, RESULTS, AND CONCLUSIONS. INTERVENTIONS WERE CHARACTERIZED BASED ON YOGA STYLE, PRACTICES IMPLEMENTED, FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF SESSIONS, DURATION OF INTERVENTION, MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS, AND ADDITIONAL INTERVENTIONS. RESULTS: OUR FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT YOGA HAS PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON WORKERS FROM DIFFERENT PROFESSIONAL CATEGORIES. HOWEVER, WE DID NOT FIND BENEFITS FOR SOME CONDITIONS, AND YOGA PRACTICE DOES NOT HAVE THE SAME POSITIVE EFFECTS ON ALL PRACTITIONERS. WORKERS' ADHERENCE TO PROGRAMS INFLUENCES THE RESULTS OF RESEARCH. MANY STUDIES DID NOT CLEARLY DESCRIBE THE IMPLEMENTED PROGRAMS. CONCLUSION: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERVENTIONS SHOW SUBSTANTIAL DIFFERENCES AMONG PROGRAMS, WHICH ENABLE A SYNTHESIS, BUT NOT COMPARISONS. 2018 15 203 22 A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE EXAMINING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES UNDERLYING THE THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS OF HATHA YOGA. AN ESTIMATED 7.4 MILLION AMERICANS CURRENTLY PRACTICE HATHA YOGA. MOREOVER, 64% OF INDIVIDUALS WHO PRACTICE YOGA REPORT DOING SO FOR WELL-BEING. PREVIOUS RESEARCH HAS REPORTED AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN YOGA PRACTICE AND SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING; HOWEVER, FEW STUDIES HAVE INVESTIGATED THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INVOLVED. THE FOLLOWING REVIEW PROVIDES AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE, WHICH CONCEPTUALIZES YOGA AS A MIND-BODY PRACTICE. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF HATHA YOGA IS PROVIDED THAT DESCRIBES THE PURPORTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND THE RELAXATION RESPONSE. A REVIEW OF THE EMERGING LITERATURE RELATED TO NITRIC OXIDE AND OXIDATIVE STRESS AS POTENTIAL MECHANISMS IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND WELL-BEING ALSO IS INCLUDED. THE ARTICLE CONCLUDES WITH A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE STATE OF THE RESEARCH AND PROVIDES SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES. 2008 16 470 19 CHARACTERISTICS OF YOGA PRACTICE AND PREDICTORS OF PRACTICE FREQUENCY. YOGA IS A GLOBALLY POPULAR MIND-BODY PRACTICE USED FOR HEALTH. THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO CHARACTERIZE YOGA PRACTICE AND FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH FREQUENCY OF PRACTICE. YOGA PRACTITIONERS WERE SENT INVITATIONS VIA EMAIL TO PARTICIPATE IN AN ONLINE SURVEY. YOGA CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER SOCIODEMOGRAPHICS WERE COLLECTED. DATA FROM 309 CONSENTING RESPONDENTS WERE ANALYZED FOR PATTERNS IN PRACTICE CHARACTERISTICS (YOGA TECHNIQUES, LOCATION OF PRACTICE, METHOD OF INSTRUCTION, TEACHER STATUS, AND YOGA TYPE). ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CHARACTERISTICS OF PRACTICE AND YOGA PRACTICE FREQUENCY WERE COMPUTED. THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS WERE THEN ANALYZED AS PREDICTORS OF PRACTICE FREQUENCY IN A REGRESSION MODEL: LOCATION OF PRACTICE, METHOD OF INSTRUCTION, TEACHER STATUS, YOGA TYPE, AND TECHNIQUES. MOST RESPONDENTS REPORTED USE OF ALL THREE YOGA TECHNIQUES (MOVEMENTS, BREATHING, AND MEDITATION) AND PRACTICED AN AVERAGE OF 4.5 +/- 1.9 DAYS A WEEK. KEY CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS LOCATION OF PRACTICE, METHOD OF INSTRUCTION, AND FREQUENCY SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERED BY TEACHER STATUS AND BY YOGA TYPE (VINIYOGA PRACTITIONERS VS. OTHER YOGA STYLES). IN OUR REGRESSION MODEL, BEING A YOGA TEACHER, BEING TAUGHT A ONE-ON-ONE YOGA PRACTICE BY SOMEONE ELSE, AND REGULAR USE OF MOVEMENT WERE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED PRACTICE FREQUENCY. OUR ANALYSES PROVIDE INSIGHT INTO HOW YOGA FACTORS SUCH AS TEACHER STATUS, METHOD OF INSTRUCTION, AND USE OF TOOLS RELATE TO PRACTICE FREQUENCY. UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PRACTICE CHARACTERISTICS AND PRACTICE FREQUENCY MAY ALLOW FOR THE IMPROVED IMPLEMENTATION OF YOGA FOR HEALTH. 2018 17 40 29 A BRIEF QUALITATIVE SURVEY ON THE UTILIZATION OF YOGA RESEARCH RESOURCES BY YOGA TEACHERS. INTRODUCTION: YOGA HAS BECOME POPULAR WORLDWIDE WITH INCREASING RESEARCH DONE ON ITS THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL. HOWEVER, IT REMAINS TO BE DETERMINED WHETHER SUCH FINDINGS ACTUALLY PERCOLATE DOWN INTO TEACHING AND PRACTICE OF YOGA TEACHERS/THERAPISTS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: THE AIM OF THIS SURVEY WAS TO DOCUMENT AWARENESS OF YOGA RESEARCH FINDINGS IN THE YOGA COMMUNITY AND FIND OUT HOW THESE WERE UTILIZED. IT WAS UNDERTAKEN WITH A SELECT GROUP OF 34 INTERNATIONAL YOGA TEACHERS AND THERAPISTS UTILIZING EMAIL AND SOCIAL MEDIA BETWEEN AUGUST AND DECEMBER 2015. MAJORITY OF RESPONDERS HAD WELL-ESTABLISHED REPUTATION IN YOGA AND WERE FROM DIVERSE LINEAGES WITH 30 OF THEM HAVING MORE THAN 5 YEARS OF EXPERIENCE IN THE FIELD. A SET OF EIGHT QUESTIONS WERE SENT TO THEM RELATED TO ESSENTIALITY OF YOGA RESEARCH, HOW THEY UPDATED THEMSELVES ON RESEARCH FINDINGS AND WHETHER SUCH STUDIES INFLUENCED THEIR TEACHING AND PRACTICE. RESPONSES WERE COMPILED AND APPROPRIATE STATISTICS DETERMINED FOR QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS WHILE FEEDBACK, COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS WERE NOTED IN DETAIL. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: ABOUT 89% AGREED THAT IT WAS ESSENTIAL TO BE UP-TO-DATE ON YOGA RESEARCH BUT ONLY 70% UPDATED THEMSELVES REGULARLY WITH AVERAGE PAPERS READ FULLY PER YEAR BEING <10. MOST ACCESSED INFORMATION THROUGH GENERAL NEWS REPORTS, EMAILS FROM CONTACTS, AND ARTICLES ON INTERNET SITES WHEREAS ONLY 7% WERE THROUGH PUBMED. ABOUT 60% FELT THESE STUDIES HELPED THEM IN GENERAL TEACHING WHEREAS 20% SAID THAT SUCH STUDIES HAD NOT REALLY INFLUENCED IT IN ANY WAY. CONCLUSION: THIS SURVEY PROVIDES A BASIC PICTURE OF A GENERAL LACK OF AWARENESS OF YOGA RESEARCH AMONGST PRACTICING YOGA TEACHERS AND THERAPISTS. THOUGH A MAJORITY AGREE RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT, FEW SERIOUSLY UPDATE THEMSELVES ON THIS THROUGH SCIENTIFIC CHANNELS. WITH REGARD TO FUTURE STUDIES, MOST WANTED "PROOF" THAT COULD BE USED TO CONVINCE POTENTIAL CLIENTS AND FELT THAT MORE QUALITATIVE METHODS SHOULD BE APPLIED. 2016 18 1646 25 MOTIVATIONS FOR ADOPTING AND MAINTAINING A YOGA PRACTICE: A NATIONAL CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY. BACKGROUND: YOGA PRACTICE IS BECOMING INCREASINGLY POPULAR AROUND THE WORLD, YET LITTLE IS KNOWN REGARDING WHY PEOPLE ADOPT THE PRACTICE OF YOGA OR HOW THEIR REASONS FOR PRACTICE CHANGE WITH CONTINUED PRACTICE. FURTHERMORE, WHETHER THOSE WHO PRACTICE DIFFERENT TYPES OF YOGA HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIVES REMAINS UNKNOWN. METHODS: TO ADDRESS THESE ISSUES, THE AUTHORS CONDUCTED A NATIONAL CROSS-SECTIONAL ONLINE SURVEY OF 1,702 YOGA PRACTITIONERS IN GERMANY, ASKING ABOUT DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION AND MOTIVES FOR INITIATING AND CONTINUING YOGA PRACTICE. RESULTS: THE MOST COMMON PRIMARY REASONS FOR STARTING YOGA WERE RELAXATION (26.6%) AND PREVENTION (25.5%), WHICH WERE ALSO THE MOST COMMON SECONDARY REASONS. NINE HUNDRED AND FORTY-ONE (55.3%) REPORTED A DIFFERENT PRIMARY REASON FOR MAINTAINING THAN FOR ADOPTING YOGA PRACTICE. PREVENTION (38.4%) AND SPIRITUALITY (26.4%) WERE THE MOST COMMONLY REPORTED PRIMARY REASONS FOR MAINTAINING YOGA PRACTICE. MORE HIGHLY EDUCATED PARTICIPANTS AND THOSE PRACTICING LONGER THAN 5 YEARS AT THE TIME OF THE SURVEY WERE MORE LIKELY TO HAVE REPORTED A DIFFERENT CURRENT PRIMARY REASON FOR YOGA PRACTICE THAN THAT FOR WHICH THEY STARTED PRACTICING. CONCLUSIONS: THESE RESULTS SHED LIGHT ON YOGA'S APPEAL TO NOVICES AND REGULAR PRACTITIONERS, WITH IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS FOR MAKING YOGA APPEALING TO BEGINNERS AS WELL AS PROMOTING THE PRACTICE AS A LONG-TERM LIFESTYLE BEHAVIOR. 2019 19 1191 21 EVOLUTION FROM FOUR MENTAL STATES TO THE HIGHEST STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS: A NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEDITATION AS DEFINED IN YOGA TEXTS. THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES A THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION TO STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND REVIEWS NEUROSCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS OF MEDITATION. THE DIFFERENT STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS CONSIST OF FOUR MENTAL STATES, I.E., CANCALATA (RANDOM THINKING), EKAGRATA (NON-MEDITATIVE FOCUSING), DHARNA (FOCUSED MEDITATION), AND DHYANA (MEDITATION) AS DEFINED IN YOGA TEXTS. MEDITATION IS A SELF-REGULATED MENTAL PROCESS ASSOCIATED WITH DEEP RELAXATION AND INCREASED INTERNALIZED ATTENTION. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS ON MEDITATION REPORTED CHANGES IN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNALS AND NEUROIMAGING MEASURES. BUT MOST OUTCOMES OF MEDITATION STUDIES SHOWED INCONSISTENT RESULTS, THIS MAY BE DUE TO HETEROGENEITY IN MEDITATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES EVOLVED IN THE LAST 200 YEARS. TRADITIONALLY, THE FEATURES OF MEDITATION INCLUDE THE CAPACITY TO SUSTAIN A HEIGHTENED AWARENESS OF THOUGHTS, BEHAVIORS, EMOTIONS, AND PERCEPTIONS. GENERALLY, MEDITATION INVOLVES NON-REACTIVE EFFORTLESS MONITORING OF THE CONTENT OF EXPERIENCE FROM MOMENT TO MOMENT. FOCUSED MEDITATION PRACTICE INVOLVES AWARENESS ON A SINGLE OBJECT AND OPEN MONITORING MEDITATION IS A NON-DIRECTIVE MEDITATION INVOLVED ATTENTION IN BREATHING, MANTRA, OR SOUND. THEREFORE, RESULTS OF FEW EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF ADVANCED MEDITATORS OR BEGINNERS REMAIN TENTATIVE. THIS IS AN ATTEMPT TO COMPILE THE MEDITATION-RELATED CHANGES IN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEUROIMAGING PROCESSES AMONG EXPERIENCED AND NOVICE PRACTITIONERS. 2019 20 2069 10 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOGA TEACHER TRAINING AND YOGA THERAPIST TRAINING AND THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN YOGA TEACHING AND YOGA THERAPY. THIS IS A SET OF INVITED PERSPECTIVES ON TWO KEY POLICY ISSUES: THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOGA TEACHER TRAINING AND YOGA THERAPIST TRAINING AND THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN YOGA TEACHING AND YOGA THERAPY. 2014