1 2307 144 TRAINING TO YOGA RESPIRATION SELECTIVELY INCREASES RESPIRATORY SENSATION IN HEALTHY MAN. BECAUSE YOGA PRACTITIONERS THINK THEY ARE BENEFITING FROM THEIR BREATH TRAINING WE HYPOTHESIZED THAT YOGA RESPIRATION TRAINING (YRT) COULD MODIFY THE RESPIRATORY SENSATION. YOGA RESPIRATION (YR) ("UJJAI") CONSISTED OF VERY SLOW, DEEP BREATHS (2-3 MIN(-1)) WITH SUSTAINED BREATH-HOLD AFTER EACH INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION. AT INCLUSION IN THE STUDY AND AFTER A 2-MONTH YRT PROGRAM, WE DETERMINED IN HEALTHY SUBJECTS THEIR EUPNEIC VENTILATORY PATTERN AND THEIR CAPACITY TO DISCRIMINATE EXTERNAL INSPIRATORY RESISTIVE LOADS (RESPIRATORY SENSATION), DIGITAL TACTILE MECHANICAL PRESSURES (SOMESTHETIC SENSATION) AND SOUND-PRESSURE STIMULATIONS (AUDITORY SENSATION). DATA WERE COMPARED TO A GENDER-, AGE-, AND WEIGHT-MATCHED CONTROL GROUP OF HEALTHY SUBJECTS WHO DID NOT UNDERGO THE YRT PROGRAM BUT WERE EXPLORED AT THE SAME EPOCHS. AFTER THE 2-MONTH YRT PROGRAM, THE RESPIRATORY SENSATION INCREASED. THUS, BOTH THE EXPONENT OF THE STEVEN'S POWER LAW (PSI=KPHIN) AND THE SLOPE OF THE LINEAR-LINEAR PLOT BETWEEN PSI AND MOUTH PRESSURE (PM) WERE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER, AND THE INTERCEPT WITH ORDINATE AXIS OF THE PSI VERSUS PM RELATIONSHIP WAS LOWER. AFTER YRT, THE PEAK PM DEVELOPED AGAINST INSPIRATORY LOADS WAS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER, REDUCING THE LOAD-INDUCED ACTIVATION OF RESPIRATORY AFFERENTS. YRT INDUCED LONG-LASTING MODIFICATIONS OF THE VENTILATORY PATTERN WITH A SIGNIFICANT LENGTHENING OF EXPIRATORY DURATION AND A MODEST TIDAL VOLUME INCREASE. NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN SOMESTHETIC AND AUDITORY SENSATIONS WERE NOTED. IN THE CONTROL GROUP, THE RESPIRATORY SENSATION WAS NOT MODIFIED DURING A 15-MIN PERIOD OF YOGA RESPIRATION, DESPITE THE PEAK PM CHANGES IN RESPONSE TO ADDED LOADS WERE THEN SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED. THESE DATA SUGGEST THAT TRAINING TO YOGA RESPIRATION SELECTIVELY INCREASES THE RESPIRATORY SENSATION, PERHAPS THROUGH ITS PERSISTENT CONDITIONING OF THE BREATHING PATTERN. 2005
2 1772 18 POTENTIAL SELF-REGULATORY MECHANISMS OF YOGA FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH. RESEARCH SUGGESTING THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF YOGA ON MYRIAD ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH HAS PROLIFERATED IN RECENT YEARS, YET THERE IS CURRENTLY NO OVERARCHING FRAMEWORK BY WHICH TO UNDERSTAND YOGA'S POTENTIAL BENEFICIAL EFFECTS. HERE WE PROVIDE A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND SYSTEMS-BASED NETWORK MODEL OF YOGA THAT FOCUSES ON INTEGRATION OF TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP FORMS OF SELF-REGULATION. WE BEGIN BY CONTEXTUALIZING YOGA IN HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY SETTINGS, AND THEN DETAIL HOW SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF YOGA PRACTICE MAY AFFECT COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND AUTONOMIC OUTPUT UNDER STRESS THROUGH AN EMPHASIS ON INTEROCEPTION AND BOTTOM-UP INPUT, RESULTING IN PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH. THE MODEL DESCRIBES YOGA PRACTICE AS A COMPREHENSIVE SKILLSET OF SYNERGISTIC PROCESS TOOLS THAT FACILITATE BIDIRECTIONAL FEEDBACK AND INTEGRATION BETWEEN HIGH- AND LOW-LEVEL BRAIN NETWORKS, AND AFFERENT AND RE-AFFERENT INPUT FROM INTEROCEPTIVE PROCESSES (SOMATOSENSORY, VISCEROSENSORY, CHEMOSENSORY). FROM A PREDICTIVE CODING PERSPECTIVE WE PROPOSE A SHIFT TO PERCEPTUAL INFERENCE FOR STRESS MODULATION AND OPTIMAL SELF-REGULATION. WE DESCRIBE HOW THE PROCESSES THAT SUB-SERVE SELF-REGULATION BECOME MORE AUTOMATIZED AND EFFICIENT OVER TIME AND PRACTICE, REQUIRING LESS EFFORT TO INITIATE WHEN NECESSARY AND TERMINATE MORE RAPIDLY WHEN NO LONGER NEEDED. TO SUPPORT OUR PROPOSED MODEL, WE PRESENT THE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE FOR YOGA AFFECTING SELF-REGULATORY PATHWAYS, INTEGRATING EXISTING CONSTRUCTS FROM BEHAVIOR THEORY AND COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE WITH EMERGING YOGA AND MEDITATION RESEARCH. THIS PAPER IS INTENDED TO GUIDE FUTURE BASIC AND CLINICAL RESEARCH, SPECIFICALLY TARGETING AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE TREATMENT OF STRESS-MEDIATED PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS. 2014
3 1508 20 IS MAN ABLE TO BREATHE ONCE A MINUTE FOR AN HOUR?: THE EFFECT OF YOGA RESPIRATION ON BLOOD GASES. THE VENTILATORY RESPONSE TO HYPERCAPNIA AND ARTERIAL BLOOD GASES DURING UJJAI RESPIRATION OF ONCE PER MINUTE FOR AN HOUR WERE DETERMINED IN A PROFESSIONAL HATHA YOGI. THE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT LOWER CHEMOSENSITIVITY TO HYPERCAPNIA IN YOGA PRACTITIONERS MAY BE DUE TO AN ADAPTATION TO LOW ARTERIAL PH AND HIGH PACO2 FOR LONG PERIODS. 2002
4 1669 21 NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEUROCOGNITIVE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE EFFECTS OF YOGA-BASED PRACTICES: TOWARDS A COMPREHENSIVE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK. DURING RECENT DECADES NUMEROUS YOGA-BASED PRACTICES (YBP) HAVE EMERGED IN THE WEST, WITH THEIR AIMS RANGING FROM FITNESS GAINS TO THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT. YOGA IS ALSO BEGINNING TO SPARK GROWING INTEREST WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY, AND YOGA-BASED INTERVENTIONS HAVE BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH MEASUREABLE CHANGES IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS, PERCEIVED EMOTIONAL STATES, AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING. YBP TYPICALLY INVOLVE A COMBINATION OF POSTURES OR MOVEMENT SEQUENCES, CONSCIOUS REGULATION OF THE BREATH, AND VARIOUS TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE ATTENTIONAL FOCUS. HOWEVER, SO FAR LITTLE IF ANY RESEARCH HAS ATTEMPTED TO DECONSTRUCT THE ROLE OF THESE DIFFERENT COMPONENT PARTS IN ORDER TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THEIR RESPECTIVE CONTRIBUTION TO THE EFFECTS OF YBP. A CLEAR OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF YOGA-BASED THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES, AS WELL AS A COMPREHENSIVE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FROM WHICH TESTABLE HYPOTHESES CAN BE FORMULATED, IS THEREFORE NEEDED. HERE WE PROPOSE SUCH A FRAMEWORK, AND OUTLINE THE BOTTOM-UP NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND TOP-DOWN NEUROCOGNITIVE MECHANISMS HYPOTHESIZED TO BE AT PLAY IN YBP. 2015
5 2781 21 YOGA THERAPY AND POLYVAGAL THEORY: THE CONVERGENCE OF TRADITIONAL WISDOM AND CONTEMPORARY NEUROSCIENCE FOR SELF-REGULATION AND RESILIENCE. YOGA THERAPY IS A NEWLY EMERGING, SELF-REGULATING COMPLEMENTARY AND INTEGRATIVE HEALTHCARE (CIH) PRACTICE. IT IS GROWING IN ITS PROFESSIONALIZATION, RECOGNITION AND UTILIZATION WITH A DEMONSTRATED COMMITMENT TO SETTING PRACTICE STANDARDS, EDUCATIONAL AND ACCREDITATION STANDARDS, AND PROMOTING RESEARCH TO SUPPORT ITS EFFICACY FOR VARIOUS POPULATIONS AND CONDITIONS. HOWEVER, HETEROGENEITY OF PRACTICE, POOR REPORTING STANDARDS, AND LACK OF A BROADLY ACCEPTED UNDERSTANDING OF THE NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN YOGA THERAPY LIMITS THE STRUCTURING OF TESTABLE HYPOTHESES AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS. CURRENT PROPOSED FRAMEWORKS OF YOGA-BASED PRACTICES FOCUS ON THE INTEGRATION OF BOTTOM-UP NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND TOP-DOWN NEUROCOGNITIVE MECHANISMS. IN ADDITION, IT HAS BEEN PROPOSED THAT PHENOMENOLOGY AND FIRST PERSON ETHICAL INQUIRY CAN PROVIDE A LENS THROUGH WHICH YOGA THERAPY IS VIEWED AS A PROCESS THAT CONTRIBUTES TOWARDS EUDAIMONIC WELL-BEING IN THE EXPERIENCE OF PAIN, ILLNESS OR DISABILITY. IN THIS ARTICLE WE BUILD ON THESE FRAMEWORKS, AND PROPOSE A MODEL OF YOGA THERAPY THAT CONVERGES WITH POLYVAGAL THEORY (PVT). PVT LINKS THE EVOLUTION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM TO THE EMERGENCE OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIORS AND POSITS THAT THE NEURAL PLATFORMS SUPPORTING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR ARE INVOLVED IN MAINTAINING HEALTH, GROWTH AND RESTORATION. THIS EXPLANATORY MODEL WHICH CONNECTS NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL PATTERNS OF AUTONOMIC REGULATION AND EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR, IS INCREASINGLY UTILIZED AS A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOR, STRESS AND ILLNESS. SPECIFICALLY, WE DESCRIBE HOW PVT CAN BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS A NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL COUNTERPART TO THE YOGIC CONCEPT OF THE GUNAS, OR QUALITIES OF NATURE. SIMILAR TO THE NEURAL PLATFORMS DESCRIBED IN PVT, THE GUNAS PROVIDE THE FOUNDATION FROM WHICH BEHAVIORAL, EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES EMERGE. WE DESCRIBE HOW THESE TWO DIFFERENT YET ANALOGOUS FRAMEWORKS-ONE BASED IN NEUROPHYSIOLOGY AND THE OTHER IN AN ANCIENT WISDOM TRADITION-HIGHLIGHT YOGA THERAPY'S PROMOTION OF PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND SOCIAL WELLBEING FOR SELF-REGULATION AND RESILIENCE. THIS PARALLEL BETWEEN THE NEURAL PLATFORMS OF PVT AND THE GUNAS OF YOGA IS INSTRUMENTAL IN CREATING A TRANSLATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR YOGA THERAPY TO ALIGN WITH ITS PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS. CONSEQUENTLY, YOGA THERAPY CAN OPERATE AS A DISTINCT PRACTICE RATHER THAN FITTING INTO AN OUTSIDE MODEL FOR ITS UTILIZATION IN RESEARCH AND CLINICAL CONTEXTS. 2018
6 65 19 A CONCEPTUAL MODEL DESCRIBING MECHANISMS FOR HOW YOGA PRACTICE MAY SUPPORT POSITIVE EMBODIMENT. YOGA PRACTICE HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS INDICES OF POSITIVE EMBODIMENT IN CORRELATIONAL AND INTERVENTION STUDIES. YET, SYSTEMATIC, THEORETICALLY-GROUNDED MODELS DETAILING SPECIFIC MECHANISMS BY WHICH YOGA SUPPORTS POSITIVE EMBODIMENT ARE LACKING. IN THIS ARTICLE, WE PRESENT A CONCEPTUAL MODEL THAT DESCRIBES MECHANISMS (I.E., MEDIATORS AND MODERATORS) THAT CAN BE USED TO GUIDE RESEARCH TO HELP ANSWER HOW, FOR WHOM, AND UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS YOGA PRACTICE MAY PROMOTE POSITIVE EMBODIMENT. BASED ON EXISTING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS AND EMPIRICAL FINDINGS, THIS MODEL SUGGESTS THAT (A) YOGA PRACTICE MAY CULTIVATE EMBODYING EXPERIENCES DURING YOGA (E.G., STATE MINDFULNESS), (B) THESE EMBODYING EXPERIENCES MAY BUILD STABLE EMBODYING EXPERIENCES THAT GENERALIZE BEYOND THE YOGA CONTEXT (E.G., TRAIT MINDFULNESS), AND (C) THESE STABLE EMBODYING EXPERIENCES MAY THEN PROMOTE EMBODYING PRACTICES (E.G., MINDFUL SELF-CARE). THIS MEDIATIONAL CHAIN IS LIKELY MODERATED BY THE YOGA CONTEXT (E.G., INSTRUCTIONAL FOCUS, PRESENCE OF MIRRORS, DIVERSITY OF BODIES REPRESENTED) AND YOGA PRACTITIONERS' SOCIAL IDENTITIES (E.G., BODY SIZE, PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS), SOCIAL AND PERSONAL HISTORIES (E.G., EXPERIENCES WITH WEIGHT STIGMA AND TRAUMA), AND PERSONALITY TRAITS AND MOTIVES (E.G., BODY COMPARISON, APPEARANCE-FOCUSED MOTIVES TO PRACTICE YOGA). USING THE STRUCTURE OF THIS CONCEPTUAL MODEL, WE OFFER RESEARCHERS IDEAS FOR TESTABLE MODELS AND STUDY DESIGNS THAT CAN SUPPORT THEM. 2020
7 571 14 DEFINING YOGA-NIDRA: TRADITIONAL ACCOUNTS, PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS. THE TERM YOGA-NIDRA HAS BEEN USED IN MANY EMPIRICAL STUDIES TO REFER TO RELAXATION AND GUIDED IMAGERY. THESE TECHNIQUES DO NOT REPRESENT THE INTENTION OR PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF YOGANIDRA DISCUSSED IN THE TRADITIONAL YOGA LITERATURE. WE PROPOSE AN OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF YOGA-NIDRA THAT IS SUPPORTED BY SEVERAL PHYSIOLOGICALLY TESTABLE HYPOTHESES REGARDING ITS OUTCOMES AND EFFECTS. TRADITIONAL DESCRIPTIONS OF YOGA-NIDRA AND CONTEMPORARY ACCOUNTS OF ITS PRACTICE ARE REVIEWED, AND STUDIES EXAMINING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF YOGA-NIDRA ARE EXAMINED. PROPOSED HYPOTHESES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH USING THIS OPERATIONAL DEFINITION ARE PROVIDED. 2013
8 2304 18 TOWARD AN EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK FOR YOGA THERAPY INFORMED BY PHILOSOPHICAL AND ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES. CONTEXT * YOGA THERAPY IS AN EMERGING COMPLEMENTARY AND INTEGRATIVE HEALTH PRACTICE FOR WHICH THERE IS INCREASING INTEREST FROM BOTH CLINICAL AND RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES. CURRENTLY MISSING, HOWEVER, IS AN EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROFESSION THAT PROVIDES PRACTITIONERS, CLIENTS, AND THE PUBLIC WITH AN UNDERSTANDING OF HOW VARIOUS YOGIC TRADITIONS AND PRINCIPLES CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN MODERN HEALTH CARE CONTEXTS. OBJECTIVE * THIS STUDY PROPOSES AN EXPLANATORY FRAMEWORK FOR YOGA THERAPY, INFORMED BY PHENOMENOLOGY, EUDAIMONIA, VIRTUE ETHICS, AND FIRST-PERSON ETHICAL INQUIRY. CONCLUSIONS * THESE 4 PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES-PHENOMENOLOGY, EUDAIMONIA, VIRTUE ETHICS, AND FIRST-PERSON ETHICAL INQUIRY-PROVIDE A LENS THROUGH WHICH TO UNDERSTAND HOW YOGIC PRACTICES SUPPORT THE INDIVIDUAL'S TRANSFORMATION IN THE EXPERIENCE OF ILLNESS, PAIN, OR DISABILITY. WE PROPOSE THAT THIS TRANSFORMATION OCCURS THROUGH FACILITATING A REHARMONIZATION OF BODY, MIND, AND ENVIRONMENT TOWARD THE EXPERIENCE OF EUDAIMONIC WELL-BEING. 2018
9 2714 25 YOGA LESSONS FOR CONSCIOUSNESS RESEARCH: A PARALIMBIC NETWORK BALANCING BRAIN RESOURCE ALLOCATION. CONSCIOUSNESS HAS BEEN PROPOSED TO PLAY A KEY ROLE IN SHAPING FLEXIBLE LEARNING AND AS SUCH IS THOUGHT TO CONFER AN EVOLUTIONARY ADVANTAGE. ATTENTION AND AWARENESS ARE THE PERHAPS MOST IMPORTANT UNDERLYING PROCESSES, YET THEIR PRECISE RELATIONSHIP IS PRESENTLY UNCLEAR. BOTH OF THESE PROCESSES MUST, HOWEVER, SERVE THE EVOLUTIONARY IMPERATIVES OF SURVIVAL AND PROCREATION. THEY ARE THUS INTIMATELY BOUND BY REWARD AND EMOTION TO HELP TO PRIORITIZE EFFICIENT BRAIN RESOURCE ALLOCATION IN ORDER TO PREDICT AND OPTIMIZE BEHAVIOR. HERE WE SHOW HOW THIS PROCESS IS SERVED BY A PARALIMBIC NETWORK CONSISTING PRIMARILY OF REGIONS LOCATED ON THE MIDLINE OF THE HUMAN BRAIN. USING MANY DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES, EXPERIMENTS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT THIS NETWORK IS EFFECTIVE AND SPECIFIC FOR SELF-AWARENESS AND CONTRIBUTES TO THE SENSE OF UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS BY ACTING AS A COMMON NEURAL PATH FOR A WIDE VARIETY OF CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCES. INTERESTINGLY, HEMODYNAMIC ACTIVITY IN THE NETWORK DECREASES WITH FOCUSING ON EXTERNAL STIMULI, WHICH HAS LED TO THE IDEA OF A DEFAULT MODE NETWORK. THIS NETWORK IS ONE OF MANY NETWORKS THAT WAX AND VANE AS RESOURCES ARE ALLOCATED TO ACCOMMODATE THE DIFFERENT CYCLICAL NEEDS OF THE ORGANISM PRIMARILY RELATED TO THE FUNDAMENTAL PLEASURES AFFORDED BY EVOLUTION: FOOD, SEX, AND CONSPECIFICS. HERE WE HYPOTHESIZE, HOWEVER, THAT THE PARALIMBIC NETWORK SERVES A CRUCIAL ROLE IN BALANCING AND REGULATING BRAIN RESOURCE ALLOCATION, AND DISCUSS HOW IT CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS A LINK BETWEEN CURRENT THEORIES OF SO-CALLED "DEFAULT MODE," "RESTING STATE NETWORKS," AND "GLOBAL WORKSPACE." WE SHOW HOW MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS OF SELF-AWARENESS AND SELF-CONTROL CAN ARISE FROM PROBLEMS IN THE PARALIMBIC NETWORK AS DEMONSTRATED HERE BY THE EXAMPLE OF ASPERGER SYNDROME. WE CONCLUDE THAT ATTENTION, AWARENESS, AND EMOTION ARE INTEGRATED BY A PARALIMBIC NETWORK THAT HELPS TO EFFICIENTLY ALLOCATE BRAIN RESOURCES TO OPTIMIZE BEHAVIOR AND HELP SURVIVAL. 2011
10 1639 19 MODULATION OF IMMUNE RESPONSES IN STRESS BY YOGA. STRESS IS A CONSTANT FACTOR IN TODAY'S FASTPACED LIFE THAT CAN JEOPARDIZE OUR HEALTH IF LEFT UNCHECKED. IT IS ONLY IN THE LAST HALF CENTURY THAT THE ROLE OF STRESS IN EVERY AILMENT FROM THE COMMON COLD TO AIDS HAS BEEN EMPHASIZED, AND THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THIS PROCESS HAVE BEEN STUDIED. STRESS INFLUENCES THE IMMUNE RESPONSE PRESUMABLY THROUGH THE ACTIVATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY ADRENAL AXIS, HYPOTHALAMIC PITUITARY-GONADAL AXIS, AND THE SYMPATHETIC-ADRENAL-MEDULLARY SYSTEM. VARIOUS NEUROTRANSMITTERS, NEUROPEPTIDES, HORMONES, AND CYTOKINES MEDIATE THESE COMPLEX BIDIRECTIONAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE RESPONSES RESULT IN ALTERATIONS IN THE NUMBER OF IMMUNE CELLS AND CYTOKINE DYSREGULATION. VARIOUS STRESS MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES SUCH AS MEDITATION, YOGA, HYPNOSIS, AND MUSCLE RELAXATION HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO REDUCE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF STRESS IN CANCERS AND HIV INFECTION. THIS REVIEW AIMS TO DISCUSS THE EFFECT OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AND EXAMINE HOW RELAXATION TECHNIQUES SUCH AS YOGA AND MEDITATION COULD REGULATE THE CYTOKINE LEVELS AND HENCE, THE IMMUNE RESPONSES DURING STRESS. 2008
11 2302 11 THINKING THROUGH THE BODY: THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF YOGA AS THERAPY FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH EATING DISORDERS. YOGA HAS HISTORICALLY BEEN VIEWED AS A DISCIPLINE THAT INCREASES SELF-AWARENESS THROUGH BODY BASED PRACTICES, MEDITATION, SELF-STUDY, AND THE READING OF PHILOSOPHICAL TEXTS. IN THE 21ST CENTURY THE MINDFULNESS TECHNIQUES OF YOGA HAVE BEEN ADAPTED AS AN ADJUNCT TO THE TREATMENT OF INDIVIDUALS WITH EATING DISORDERS. IN AN EFFORT TO UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF YOGA AS THERAPY FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH EATING DISORDERS, THIS ARTICLE JUXTAPOSES HOW MINDFULNESS BASED YOGA IS REGARDED IN THREE DISCIPLINES: SOCIOLOGY, NEUROSCIENCE, AND THE "SPIRITUAL TEXTS" OF YOGA. 2011
12 93 22 A NARRATIVE REVIEW OF YOGA AND MINDFULNESS AS COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES FOR ADDICTION. THIS PAPER REVIEWS THE PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS, CURRENT SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE, AND CLINICAL PROMISE OF YOGA AND MINDFULNESS AS COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES FOR ADDICTION. HISTORICALLY, THERE ARE EIGHT ELEMENTS OF YOGA THAT, TOGETHER, COMPRISE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES FOR LIVING A MEANINGFUL, PURPOSEFUL, MORAL AND SELF-DISCIPLINED LIFE. TRADITIONAL YOGA PRACTICES, INCLUDING POSTURES AND MEDITATION, DIRECT ATTENTION TOWARD ONE'S HEALTH, WHILE ACKNOWLEDGING THE SPIRITUAL ASPECTS OF ONE'S NATURE. MINDFULNESS DERIVES FROM ANCIENT BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY, AND MINDFULNESS MEDITATION PRACTICES, SUCH AS GENTLE HATHA YOGA AND MINDFUL BREATHING, ARE INCREASINGLY INTEGRATED INTO SECULAR HEALTH CARE SETTINGS. CURRENT THEORETICAL MODELS SUGGEST THAT THE SKILLS, INSIGHTS, AND SELF-AWARENESS LEARNED THROUGH YOGA AND MINDFULNESS PRACTICE CAN TARGET MULTIPLE PSYCHOLOGICAL, NEURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND BEHAVIORAL PROCESSES IMPLICATED IN ADDICTION AND RELAPSE. A SMALL BUT GROWING NUMBER OF WELL-DESIGNED CLINICAL TRIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORY STUDIES ON SMOKING, ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE, AND ILLICIT SUBSTANCE USE SUPPORT THE CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS AND HYPOTHESIZED MECHANISMS OF ACTION UNDERLYING MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS FOR TREATING ADDICTION. BECAUSE VERY FEW STUDIES HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED ON THE SPECIFIC ROLE OF YOGA IN TREATING OR PREVENTING ADDICTION, WE PROPOSE A CONCEPTUAL MODEL TO INFORM FUTURE STUDIES ON OUTCOMES AND POSSIBLE MECHANISMS. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH IS ALSO NEEDED TO BETTER UNDERSTAND WHAT TYPES OF YOGA AND MINDFULNESS-BASED INTERVENTIONS WORK BEST FOR WHAT TYPES OF ADDICTION, WHAT TYPES OF PATIENTS, AND UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS. OVERALL, CURRENT FINDINGS INCREASINGLY SUPPORT YOGA AND MINDFULNESS AS PROMISING COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES FOR TREATING AND PREVENTING ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS. 2013
13 1335 20 HOW DOES YOGA PRACTICE AND THERAPY YIELD PSYCHOLOGICAL BENEFITS? A REVIEW AND MODEL OF TRANSDIAGNOSTIC PROCESSES. INTEREST IN YOGA AS AN INTERVENTION FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING HAS INCREASED IN RECENT YEARS, WITH LITERATURE INVESTIGATING BENEFICIAL EFFECTS IN A VARIETY OF PRESENTATIONS AND SETTINGS. THE THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THIS BENEFIT HAS PREVIOUSLY FOCUSED ON PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES INVOLVED IN YOGA PRACTICE, HOWEVER INTEREST HAS TURNED TO THE POTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS ELICITING PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING. THE CURRENT PAPER BUILDS ON PREVIOUS THEORY AND ARGUES THAT YOGA PRACTICE TARGETS TRANSDIAGNOSTIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES; MECHANISMS THAT FEATURE COMMONLY ACROSS A WIDE RANGE OF PRESENTATIONS, THUS REDUCING DISTRESS AND INCREASING WELLBEING ACROSS CLINICAL AND NON-CLINICAL POPULATIONS. FEATURES OF YOGA PRACTICE ARE DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO THESE TRANSDIAGNOSTIC PROCESSES AND THE FEATURES OF MODERN TALKING THERAPIES. A NEW MODEL IS PROPOSED POSITING SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF YOGA PRACTICE CORRELATE WITH SPECIFIC TRANSDIAGNOSTIC PROCESSES TO ELICIT PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGE AND ARGUES THAT THE MECHANISMS BY WHICH CHANGE OCCURS ARE DIRECTLY COMPARED WITH THE CHANGES OBSERVED IN TALKING THERAPIES. THE IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND THE POTENTIAL FOR THIS TO SUPPORT THE COMMISSIONING OF HOLISTIC APPROACHES IN CLINICAL PRACTICE ARE DISCUSSED. 2022
14 2086 24 THE EFFECT OF MOVEMENT-FOCUSED AND BREATH-FOCUSED YOGA PRACTICE ON STRESS PARAMETERS AND SUSTAINED ATTENTION: A RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED PILOT STUDY. YOGA-BASED PRACTICES (YBP) TYPICALLY INVOLVE A COMBINATION OF MOVEMENT SEQUENCES, CONSCIOUS REGULATION OF THE BREATH, AND TECHNIQUES TO ENGAGE ATTENTION. HOWEVER, LITTLE IS KNOWN ABOUT WHETHER EFFECTS OF YBP RESULT FROM THE SYNERGISTIC COMBINATION OF THESE COMPONENTS, OR WHETHER A SUBSET MAY YIELD SIMILAR EFFECTS. IN THIS STUDY WE COMPARED THE EFFECT OF A MOVEMENT-FOCUSED PRACTICE AND A BREATH-FOCUSED PRACTICE ON STRESS PARAMETERS (PERCEIVED STRESS AND SALIVARY CORTISOL) AND SUSTAINED ATTENTION (RESPONSE INHIBITION) IN YOGA NAIVE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. WHILE PARTICIPANTS OF BOTH PROGRAMS SHOWED A REDUCTION IN PERCEIVED STRESS AND SALIVARY CORTISOL, ONLY THE BREATH-FOCUSED GROUP SHOWED IMPROVEMENTS IN SUSTAINED ATTENTION. IN ADDITION, IMPROVEMENT IN SUSTAINED ATTENTION WAS CORRELATED WITH REDUCTION IN PERCEIVED STRESS BUT NOT WITH REDUCTION IN SALIVARY CORTISOL. WE DISCUSS THESE FINDINGS IN THE CONTEXT OF A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OUTLINING BOTTOM-UP NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND TOP-DOWN NEUROCOGNITIVE MECHANISMS HYPOTHESIZED TO BE ENGAGED BY YBP. 2018
15 653 16 EATING DISORDERS, EMBODIMENT, AND YOGA: A CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW. YOGA AND ITS RELATION TO EMBODIMENT AND DISORDERED EATING HAS ONLY RECENTLY RECEIVED RESEARCH ATTENTION. NEVERTHELESS, EARLY RESEARCH INDICATES THAT YOGA IS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL IN THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF EATING DISORDERS. IT IS ASSUMED THAT YOGA AMELIORATES EATING DISORDER SYMPTOMS AND FACILITATES A SHIFT FROM NEGATIVE TOWARDS POSITIVE BODY IMAGE AND WELL-BEING BY CULTIVATING POSITIVE EMBODIMENT (I.E., THE ABILITY TO FEEL A SENSE OF CONNECTION BETWEEN MIND AND BODY). IN ORDER TO PROVIDE THE CONTEXT OF THE CONSTRUCTS OF DISORDERED EATING, EMBODIMENT, AND YOGA, THIS ARTICLE PRESENTS A BRIEF OVERVIEW AND CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THESE CONSTRUCTS. THE THREE MAJOR EATING DISORDERS AND CURRENT TREATMENT METHODS ARE DESCRIBED. FURTHER, THE PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS AND THEORETICAL MODELS OF EMBODIMENT ARE DELINEATED AND THEIR COMMUNAL CORE FEATURES ARE OUTLINED. LASTLY, THE ORIGIN, BASIC PRINCIPLES, AND MODERN INTERPRETATIONS OF YOGA ARE DISCUSSED. 2020
16 1472 22 INSULAR CORTEX MEDIATES INCREASED PAIN TOLERANCE IN YOGA PRACTITIONERS. YOGA, AN INCREASINGLY POPULAR DISCIPLINE AMONG WESTERNERS, IS FREQUENTLY USED TO IMPROVE PAINFUL CONDITIONS. WE INVESTIGATED POSSIBLE NEUROANATOMICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF YOGA USING SENSORY TESTING AND MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING TECHNIQUES. NORTH AMERICAN YOGIS TOLERATED PAIN MORE THAN TWICE AS LONG AS INDIVIDUALLY MATCHED CONTROLS AND HAD MORE GRAY MATTER (GM) IN MULTIPLE BRAIN REGIONS. ACROSS SUBJECTS, INSULAR GM UNIQUELY CORRELATED WITH PAIN TOLERANCE. INSULAR GM VOLUME IN YOGIS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH YOGA EXPERIENCE, SUGGESTING A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND INSULAR SIZE. YOGIS ALSO HAD INCREASED LEFT INTRAINSULAR WHITE MATTER INTEGRITY, CONSISTENT WITH A STRENGTHENED INSULAR INTEGRATION OF NOCICEPTIVE INPUT AND PARASYMPATHETIC AUTONOMIC REGULATION. YOGIS, AS OPPOSED TO CONTROLS, USED COGNITIVE STRATEGIES INVOLVING PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVATION AND INTEROCEPTIVE AWARENESS TO TOLERATE PAIN, WHICH COULD HAVE LED TO USE-DEPENDENT HYPERTROPHY OF INSULAR CORTEX. TOGETHER, THESE FINDINGS SUGGEST THAT REGULAR AND LONG-TERM YOGA PRACTICE IMPROVES PAIN TOLERANCE IN TYPICAL NORTH AMERICANS BY TEACHING DIFFERENT WAYS TO DEAL WITH SENSORY INPUTS AND THE POTENTIAL EMOTIONAL REACTIONS ATTACHED TO THOSE INPUTS LEADING TO A CHANGE IN INSULAR BRAIN ANATOMY AND CONNECTIVITY. 2014
17 2448 21 YOGA AND THE EXPERIENCE OF EMBODIMENT: A DISCUSSION OF POSSIBLE LINKS. THE IMPACT OF YOGA ON BODY IMAGE AND EMBODIMENT HAS BEEN A RECENT AREA OF FOCUS IN THE FIELD OF BODY IMAGE AND EATING DISORDERS. THIS PAPER COMPRISES A THEORETICAL DISCUSSION OF HOW THE PRACTICE OF YOGA CAN LEAD TO POSITIVE WAYS OF INHABITING THE BODY, SPECIFICALLY THROUGH THE LENS OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY OF EMBODIMENT. YOGA MAY ENHANCE THE OVERALL EXPERIENCE OF EMBODIMENT, BY HAVING A POSITIVE IMPACT ON EACH OF ITS FIVE DIMENSIONS: BODY CONNECTION AND COMFORT, AGENCY AND FUNCTIONALITY, ATTUNED SELF-CARE, SUBJECTIVE IMMERSION (RESISTING OBJECTIFICATION), AND EXPERIENCE AND EXPRESSION OF DESIRES. THE ARTICLE THEREFORE DESCRIBES EXAMPLES OF TEACHER-RELATED PRACTICES DURING YOGA THAT CAN ENHANCE EACH OF THESE DIMENSIONS. FURTHER, YOGA TEACHERS CAN CONSIDER THE VARIED PROTECTIVE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS DELINEATED BY THE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY OF EMBODIMENT TO FACILITATE POSITIVE EMBODIMENT. FUTURE RESEARCH SHOULD EXPLICITLY INTEGRATE EMBODIMENT THEORY WITH YOGA INTERVENTIONS, AS WELL AS MEASURES THAT ASSESS BOTH POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF CHANGE AND POSITIVE WAYS OF LIVING IN THE BODY. 2020
18 1089 19 EFFECTS OF YOGA ON THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC-ACID, AND ALLOSTASIS IN EPILEPSY, DEPRESSION, AND POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER. A THEORY IS PROPOSED TO EXPLAIN THE BENEFITS OF YOGA PRACTICES IN DIVERSE, FREQUENTLY COMORBID MEDICAL CONDITIONS BASED ON THE CONCEPT THAT YOGA PRACTICES REDUCE ALLOSTATIC LOAD IN STRESS RESPONSE SYSTEMS SUCH THAT OPTIMAL HOMEOSTASIS IS RESTORED. IT IS HYPOTHESIZED THAT STRESS INDUCES (1) IMBALANCE OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) WITH DECREASED PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) AND INCREASED SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) ACTIVITY, (2) UNDERACTIVITY OF THE GAMMA AMINO-BUTYRIC ACID (GABA) SYSTEM, THE PRIMARY INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTER SYSTEM, AND (3) INCREASED ALLOSTATIC LOAD. IT IS FURTHER HYPOTHESIZED THAT YOGA-BASED PRACTICES (4) CORRECT UNDERACTIVITY OF THE PNS AND GABA SYSTEMS IN PART THROUGH STIMULATION OF THE VAGUS NERVES, THE MAIN PERIPHERAL PATHWAY OF THE PNS, AND (5) REDUCE ALLOSTATIC LOAD. DEPRESSION, EPILEPSY, POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD), AND CHRONIC PAIN EXEMPLIFY MEDICAL CONDITIONS THAT ARE EXACERBATED BY STRESS, HAVE LOW HEART RATE VARIABILITY (HRV) AND LOW GABAERGIC ACTIVITY, RESPOND TO PHARMACOLOGIC AGENTS THAT INCREASE ACTIVITY OF THE GABA SYSTEM, AND SHOW SYMPTOM IMPROVEMENT IN RESPONSE TO YOGA-BASED INTERVENTIONS. THE OBSERVATION THAT TREATMENT RESISTANT CASES OF EPILEPSY AND DEPRESSION RESPOND TO VAGAL NERVE STIMULATION CORROBORATES THE NEED TO CORRECT PNS UNDERACTIVITY AS PART OF A SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT PLAN IN SOME CASES. ACCORDING TO THE PROPOSED THEORY, THE DECREASED PNS AND GABAERGIC ACTIVITY THAT UNDERLIES STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS CAN BE CORRECTED BY YOGA PRACTICES RESULTING IN AMELIORATION OF DISEASE SYMPTOMS. THIS HAS FAR-REACHING IMPLICATIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION OF YOGA-BASED PRACTICES IN THE TREATMENT OF A BROAD ARRAY OF DISORDERS EXACERBATED BY STRESS. 2012
19 2886 21 YOGA: BALANCING THE EXCITATION-INHIBITION EQUILIBRIUM IN PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS. SOCIAL BEHAVIORAL DISTURBANCES ARE CENTRAL TO MOST PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS. A DISEQUILIBRIUM WITHIN THE CORTICAL EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTER SYSTEMS UNDERLIES THESE DEFICITS. GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA) AND GLUTAMATE ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS IN THE BRAIN THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THIS EQUILIBRIUM. SEVERAL CONTEMPORARY THERAPIES USED IN TREATING PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS, REGULATE THIS GABA-GLUTAMATE BALANCE. YOGA HAS BEEN STUDIED AS AN ADJUVANT TREATMENT ACROSS A BROAD RANGE OF PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS AND IS SHOWN TO HAVE SHORT-TERM THERAPEUTIC GAINS. EMERGING EVIDENCE FROM RECENT CLINICAL IN VIVO EXPERIMENTS SUGGESTS THAT YOGA IMPROVES GABA-MEDIATED CORTICAL-INHIBITORY TONE AND ENHANCES PERIPHERAL OXYTOCIN LEVELS. THIS IS LIKELY TO HAVE A MORE CONTROLLED DOWNSTREAM RESPONSE OF THE HYPOTHALAMO-PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM BY MEANS OF REDUCED CORTISOL RELEASE AND HENCE A BLUNTED SYMPATHETIC RESPONSE TO STRESS. ANIMAL AND EARLY FETAL DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES SUGGEST AN INTER-DEPENDENT ROLE OF OXYTOCIN AND GABA IN REGULATING SOCIAL BEHAVIORS. IN KEEPING WITH THESE OBSERVATIONS, WE PROPOSE AN INTEGRATED NEUROBIOLOGICAL MODEL TO STUDY THE MECHANISMS OF THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS WITH YOGA. APART FROM PROVIDING A NEUROSCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR APPLYING A TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF PRACTICE IN THE CLINICAL SETTING, THIS MODEL CAN BE USED AS A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDYING YOGA MECHANISMS IN FUTURE CLINICAL TRIALS. 2019
20 1191 16 EVOLUTION FROM FOUR MENTAL STATES TO THE HIGHEST STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS: A NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEDITATION AS DEFINED IN YOGA TEXTS. THIS CHAPTER PROVIDES A THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION TO STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND REVIEWS NEUROSCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS OF MEDITATION. THE DIFFERENT STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS CONSIST OF FOUR MENTAL STATES, I.E., CANCALATA (RANDOM THINKING), EKAGRATA (NON-MEDITATIVE FOCUSING), DHARNA (FOCUSED MEDITATION), AND DHYANA (MEDITATION) AS DEFINED IN YOGA TEXTS. MEDITATION IS A SELF-REGULATED MENTAL PROCESS ASSOCIATED WITH DEEP RELAXATION AND INCREASED INTERNALIZED ATTENTION. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS ON MEDITATION REPORTED CHANGES IN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNALS AND NEUROIMAGING MEASURES. BUT MOST OUTCOMES OF MEDITATION STUDIES SHOWED INCONSISTENT RESULTS, THIS MAY BE DUE TO HETEROGENEITY IN MEDITATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES EVOLVED IN THE LAST 200 YEARS. TRADITIONALLY, THE FEATURES OF MEDITATION INCLUDE THE CAPACITY TO SUSTAIN A HEIGHTENED AWARENESS OF THOUGHTS, BEHAVIORS, EMOTIONS, AND PERCEPTIONS. GENERALLY, MEDITATION INVOLVES NON-REACTIVE EFFORTLESS MONITORING OF THE CONTENT OF EXPERIENCE FROM MOMENT TO MOMENT. FOCUSED MEDITATION PRACTICE INVOLVES AWARENESS ON A SINGLE OBJECT AND OPEN MONITORING MEDITATION IS A NON-DIRECTIVE MEDITATION INVOLVED ATTENTION IN BREATHING, MANTRA, OR SOUND. THEREFORE, RESULTS OF FEW EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF ADVANCED MEDITATORS OR BEGINNERS REMAIN TENTATIVE. THIS IS AN ATTEMPT TO COMPILE THE MEDITATION-RELATED CHANGES IN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL AND NEUROIMAGING PROCESSES AMONG EXPERIENCED AND NOVICE PRACTITIONERS. 2019