1 2371 116 WHAT HAS NEUROIMAGING TAUGHT US ON THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF YOGA? A REVIEW. YOGA IS BECOMING INCREASINGLY POPULAR WORLDWIDE, WITH SEVERAL IMPLICATED PHYSICAL AND MENTAL BENEFITS. HERE WE PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE AND CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH GENERATED FROM THE EXISTING NEUROIMAGING LITERATURE IN STUDIES OF YOGA PRACTITIONERS. WE REVIEWED 34 INTERNATIONAL PEER-REVIEWED NEUROIMAGING STUDIES OF YOGA USING MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI), POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET), OR SINGLE-PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (SPECT): 11 MORPHOLOGICAL AND 26 FUNCTIONAL STUDIES, INCLUDING THREE STUDIES THAT WERE CLASSIFIED AS BOTH MORPHOLOGICAL AND FUNCTIONAL. CONSISTENT FINDINGS INCLUDE INCREASED GRAY MATTER VOLUME IN THE INSULA AND HIPPOCAMPUS, INCREASED ACTIVATION OF PREFRONTAL CORTICAL REGIONS, AND FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY CHANGES MAINLY WITHIN THE DEFAULT MODE NETWORK. THERE IS QUITE SOME VARIABILITY IN THE NEUROIMAGING FINDINGS THAT PARTIALLY REFLECTS DIFFERENT YOGA STYLES AND APPROACHES, AS WELL AS SAMPLE SIZE LIMITATIONS. DIRECT COMPARATOR GROUPS SUCH AS PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ARE SCARCELY USED SO FAR. FINALLY, HYPOTHESES ON THE UNDERLYING NEUROBIOLOGY DERIVED FROM THE IMAGING FINDINGS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE LIGHT OF THE POTENTIAL BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF YOGA. 2020 2 2531 37 YOGA EFFECTS ON BRAIN HEALTH: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE CURRENT LITERATURE. YOGA IS THE MOST POPULAR COMPLEMENTARY HEALTH APPROACH PRACTICED BY ADULTS IN THE UNITED STATES. IT IS AN ANCIENT MIND AND BODY PRACTICE WITH ORIGINS IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. YOGA COMBINES PHYSICAL POSTURES, RHYTHMIC BREATHING AND MEDITATIVE EXERCISE TO OFFER THE PRACTITIONERS A UNIQUE HOLISTIC MIND-BODY EXPERIENCE. WHILE THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE ARE WELL ESTABLISHED, IN RECENT YEARS, THE ACTIVE ATTENTIONAL COMPONENT OF BREATHING AND MEDITATION PRACTICE HAS GARNERED INTEREST AMONG EXERCISE NEUROSCIENTISTS. AS THE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH BENEFITS OF YOGA CONTINUES TO GROW, THIS ARTICLE AIMS TO SUMMARIZE THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF YOGA PRACTICE AND ITS DOCUMENTED POSITIVE EFFECTS FOR BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, AS ASSESSED WITH MRI, FMRI, AND SPECT. WE REVIEWED 11 STUDIES EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF YOGA PRACTICE ON THE BRAIN STRUCTURES, FUNCTION AND CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW. COLLECTIVELY, THE STUDIES DEMONSTRATE A POSITIVE EFFECT OF YOGA PRACTICE ON THE STRUCTURE AND/OR FUNCTION OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS, AMYGDALA, PREFRONTAL CORTEX, CINGULATE CORTEX AND BRAIN NETWORKS INCLUDING THE DEFAULT MODE NETWORK (DMN). THE STUDIES OFFER PROMISING EARLY EVIDENCE THAT BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS LIKE YOGA MAY HOLD PROMISE TO MITIGATE AGE-RELATED AND NEURODEGENERATIVE DECLINES AS MANY OF THE REGIONS IDENTIFIED ARE KNOWN TO DEMONSTRATE SIGNIFICANT AGE-RELATED ATROPHY. 2019 3 1051 29 EFFECTS OF YOGA ON BRAIN WAVES AND STRUCTURAL ACTIVATION: A REVIEW. PREVIOUS RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THE VAST MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH YOGA. YOGA PRACTICE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO SUBCATEGORIES THAT INCLUDE POSTURE-HOLDING EXERCISE (ASANA), BREATHING (PRANAYAMA, KRIYA), AND MEDITATION (SAHAJ) PRACTICE. STUDIES MEASURING MENTAL HEALTH OUTCOMES HAVE SHOWN DECREASES IN ANXIETY, AND INCREASES IN COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE AFTER YOGA INTERVENTIONS. SIMILAR STUDIES HAVE ALSO SHOWN COGNITIVE ADVANTAGES AMONGST YOGA PRACTITIONERS VERSUS NON-PRACTITIONERS. THE MENTAL HEALTH AND COGNITIVE BENEFITS OF YOGA ARE EVIDENT, BUT THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE BRAIN THAT LEAD TO THIS REMAIN A TOPIC THAT LACKS CONSENSUS. THEREFORE, THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY WAS TO EXAMINE AND REVIEW EXISTING LITERATURE ON THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON BRAIN WAVES AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES AND ACTIVATION. AFTER A NARROWED SEARCH THROUGH A SET OF SPECIFIC INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA, 15 ARTICLES WERE USED IN THIS REVIEW. IT WAS CONCLUDED THAT BREATHING, MEDITATION, AND POSTURE-BASED YOGA INCREASED OVERALL BRAIN WAVE ACTIVITY. INCREASES IN GRAYGRAY MATTER ALONG WITH INCREASES IN AMYGDALA AND FRONTAL CORTEX ACTIVATION WERE EVIDENT AFTER A YOGA INTERVENTION. YOGA PRACTICE MAY BE AN EFFECTIVE ADJUNCTIVE TREATMENT FOR A CLINICAL AND HEALTHY AGING POPULATION. FURTHER RESEARCH CAN EXAMINE THE EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC BRANCHES OF YOGA ON A DESIGNATED CLINICAL POPULATION. 2015 4 2693 26 YOGA INCREASES THE VOLUME OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS IN ELDERLY SUBJECTS. CONTEXT: THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF YOGA ON THE CORTICAL STRUCTURES IN THE ELDERLY IS AS YET UNKNOWN. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SEVEN HEALTHY ELDERLY SUBJECTS RECEIVED YOGA INTERVENTION AS AN ADD-ON LIFE-STYLE PRACTICE. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING SCANS WERE OBTAINED BEFORE AND 6 MONTHS LATER. VOXEL-BASED-MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSES COMPARED THE BRAINS BEFORE AND AFTER THE YOGA. RESULTS: YOGA GROUP WAS FOUND TO HAVE INCREASES IN HIPPOCAMPAL, BUT NOT IN OCCIPITAL GRAY MATTER. CONCLUSION: YOGA HAS POTENTIAL TO REDUCE NEURO-SENESCENCE. SMALL SAMPLE SIZE AND ABSENCE OF THE CONTROL GROUP PREVENT GENERALIZATION OF THE FINDINGS LIMITING ITS TRANSLATIONAL VALUE. 2013 5 1590 20 MEDITATION AND YOGA CAN MODULATE BRAIN MECHANISMS THAT AFFECT BEHAVIOR AND ANXIETY-A MODERN SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE. MEDITATION AND YOGA TECHNIQUES ARE RECEIVING INCREASED ATTENTION THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, DUE TO THE ACCUMULATION OF EVIDENCE BASED RESEARCH THAT PROVES THE DIRECT AND INDIRECT BENEFITS OF SUCH PRACTICES. BASED ON STUDIES CONDUCTED SO FAR, IT HAS BEEN FOUND THAT THE PRACTICE OF MEDITATION TRIGGERS NEUROTRANSMITTERS THAT MODULATE PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS SUCH AS ANXIETY. THIS PAPER WILL REVIEW THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE PRACTICE OF MEDITATION, THE ROLE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS, AND STUDIES USING EEG AND FMRI. 2015 6 1972 29 SHORT-TERM SAHAJA YOGA MEDITATION TRAINING MODULATES BRAIN STRUCTURE AND SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY IN THE EXECUTIVE CONTROL NETWORK. INTRODUCTION: WHILE CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN NEURAL CHANGES IN LONG-TERM MEDITATORS, THEY MIGHT BE CONFOUNDED BY SELF-SELECTION AND POTENTIAL BASELINE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEDITATORS AND NON MEDITATORS. PROSPECTIVE LONGITUDINAL STUDIES OF THE EFFECTS OF MEDITATION IN NAIVE SUBJECTS ARE MORE CONCLUSIVE WITH RESPECT TO CAUSAL INFERENCES, BUT RELATED EVIDENCE IS SO FAR LIMITED. METHODS: HERE, WE ASSESSED THE EFFECTS OF A 4-WEEK SAHAJA YOGA MEDITATION TRAINING ON GRAY MATTER DENSITY AND SPONTANEOUS RESTING-STATE BRAIN ACTIVITY IN A GROUP OF 12 MEDITATION-NAIVE HEALTHY ADULTS. RESULTS: COMPARED WITH 30 CONTROL SUBJECTS, THE PARTICIPANTS TO MEDITATION TRAINING SHOWED INCREASED GRAY MATTER DENSITY AND CHANGES IN THE COHERENCE OF INTRINSIC BRAIN ACTIVITY IN TWO ADJACENT REGIONS OF THE RIGHT INFERIOR FRONTAL GYRUS ENCOMPASSING THE ANTERIOR COMPONENT OF THE EXECUTIVE CONTROL NETWORK. BOTH THESE MEASURES CORRELATED WITH SELF-REPORTED WELL-BEING SCORES IN THE MEDITATION GROUP. CONCLUSIONS: THE SIGNIFICANT IMPACT OF A BRIEF MEDITATION TRAINING ON BRAIN REGIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ATTENTION, SELF-CONTROL, AND SELF-AWARENESS MAY REFLECT THE ENGAGEMENT OF COGNITIVE CONTROL SKILLS IN SEARCHING FOR A STATE OF MENTAL SILENCE, A DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF SAHAJA YOGA MEDITATION. THE MANIFOLD IMPLICATIONS OF THESE FINDINGS INVOLVE BOTH MANAGERIAL AND REHABILITATIVE SETTINGS CONCERNED WITH WELL-BEING AND EMOTIONAL STATE IN NORMAL AND PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 2019 7 2369 33 WHAT ARE THE KNOWN EFFECTS OF YOGA ON THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO MOTOR PERFORMANCES, BODY AWARENESS AND PAIN? A NARRATIVE REVIEW. OBJECTIVE: THE CURRENT BODY OF LITERATURE WAS REVIEWED TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO MOTOR PERFORMANCE, BODY AWARENESS AND PAIN. BACKGROUND: YOGA HAS BEEN INCREASINGLY POPULAR IN THE WESTERN COUNTRIES ESPECIALLY FOR ITS UNIQUE INTEGRATION OF THE MIND AND BODY. YOGA HAS BEEN STUDIED MORE INTENSELY IN THE LAST DECADE. ALTHOUGH IT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO IMPROVE COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS, FEW STUDIES HAVE LOOKED INTO THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON IMPROVING MOTOR PERFORMANCE, BODY AWARENESS OR PAIN AND THE POSSIBLE UNDERLYING BRAIN MECHANISMS ASSOCIATED WITH THEM. METHODS: A SEARCH OF THE CURRENT LITERATURE WAS MADE USING KEYWORDS SUCH AS: "YOGA BRAIN MOTOR", "YOGA BRAIN PAIN", "EFFECTS YOGA BRAIN" AND "EFFECTS YOGA BRAIN MOTOR PERFORMANCE". THE FINDINGS WERE THEN DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO MOTOR PERFORMANCE, BODY AWARENESS AND PAIN AND THEIR REPORTED MECHANISMS OF ACTION ON THE BRAIN. RESULTS: A TOTAL OF 61 ARTICLES WERE SELECTED, OUT OF WHICH 29 WERE EXCLUDED BECAUSE THEY DID NOT MEET OUR CRITERIA. A TOTAL OF THIRTY-TWO ARTICLES WERE INCLUDED IN THIS REVIEW, WHICH WE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED BY FOCUS: MOTOR PERFORMANCE (N=10), BODY AWARENESS (N=14) AND PAIN (N=8). DISCUSSION: OUR REVIEW SHOWS THAT YOGA HAS A POSITIVE EFFECT ON LEARNING RATE, SPEED AND ACCURACY OF A MOTOR TASK BY INCREASING ATTENTION AND DECREASING STRESS THROUGH A BETTER CONTROL OF SENSORIMOTOR RHYTHMS. YOGA ALSO SEEMS TO IMPROVE SENSORY AWARENESS AND INTEROCEPTION, REGULATE AUTONOMIC INPUT, INCREASE PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY AND PROMOTE SELF-REGULATION. YOGA WAS ALSO SHOWN TO REDUCE THE THREAT SIGNAL, INCREASE PAIN TOLERANCE, DECREASE PAIN UNPLEASANTNESS AND DECREASE THE ANXIETY AND DISTRESS ASSOCIATED WITH PAIN. THOSE CHANGES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE RECRUITMENT OF SPECIFIC BRAIN AREAS SUCH AS THE INSULA, THE AMYGDALA AND THE HIPPOCAMPUS. CONCLUSION: BASED ON THE STUDIES REVIEWED IN THIS REPORT, WE FOUND THAT THE PRACTICE OF YOGA SEEMS TO FACILITATE MOTOR LEARNING, TO INCREASE BODY AWARENESS AND TO DECREASE PAIN. THESE ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A WIDE VARIETY OF CHANGES IN TERMS OF BRAIN ACTIVITY AND STRUCTURE. FURTHER STUDIES ARE NECESSARY TO REVEAL ITS PRECISE MECHANISM OF ACTION ON THE BRAIN AND TO VALIDATE ITS WIDER APPLICATION IN CLINICAL SETTINGS. 2019 8 1098 29 EFFECTS OF YOGA RESPIRATORY PRACTICE (BHASTRIKA PRANAYAMA) ON ANXIETY, AFFECT, AND BRAIN FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY AND ACTIVITY: A RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL. PRANAYAMA REFERS TO A SET OF YOGA BREATHING EXERCISES. RECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT THE PRACTICE OF PRANAYAMA HAS POSITIVE EFFECTS ON MEASURES OF CLINICAL STRESS AND ANXIETY. THIS STUDY EXPLORED THE IMPACT OF A BHASTRIKA PRANAYAMA TRAINING PROGRAM ON EMOTION PROCESSING, ANXIETY, AND AFFECT. WE USED A RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL DESIGN WITH THIRTY HEALTHY YOUNG ADULTS ASSESSED AT BASELINE AND AFTER 4 WEEKS OF PRANAYAMA PRACTICES. TWO FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) PROTOCOLS WERE USED BOTH AT BASELINE AND POST-INTERVENTION: AN EMOTION TASK AS WELL AS A RESTING-STATE ACQUISITION. OUR RESULTS SUGGEST THAT PRANAYAMA SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASED STATES OF ANXIETY AND NEGATIVE AFFECT. THE PRACTICE OF PRANAYAMA ALSO MODULATED THE ACTIVITY OF BRAIN REGIONS INVOLVED IN EMOTIONAL PROCESSING, PARTICULARLY THE AMYGDALA, ANTERIOR CINGULATE, ANTERIOR INSULA, AND PREFRONTAL CORTEX. RESTING-STATE FUNCTIONAL MRI (FMRI) SHOWED SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIVITY INVOLVING THE ANTERIOR INSULA AND LATERAL PORTIONS OF THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX. CORRELATION ANALYSIS REVEALED THAT CHANGES IN CONNECTIVITY BETWEEN THE VENTROLATERAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX AND THE RIGHT ANTERIOR INSULA WERE ASSOCIATED WITH CHANGES IN ANXIETY. ALTHOUGH IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THESE ANALYSES WERE PRELIMINARY AND EXPLORATORY, IT PROVIDES THE FIRST EVIDENCE THAT 4 WEEKS OF B. PRANAYAMA SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE THE LEVELS OF ANXIETY AND NEGATIVE AFFECT, AND THAT THESE CHANGES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE MODULATION OF ACTIVITY AND CONNECTIVITY IN BRAIN AREAS INVOLVED IN EMOTION PROCESSING, ATTENTION, AND AWARENESS. THE STUDY WAS REGISTERED AT HTTPS://WWW.ENSAIOSCLINICOS.GOV.BR/RG/RBR-2GV5C2/(RBR-2GV5C2). 2020 9 1698 26 PAIN-RELATED ENCEPHALIC REGIONS INFLUENCED BY YOGA MEDITATION: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW. INTRODUCTION: THE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE USE OF YOGA IN PAIN RELIEF ARE STILL UNCLEAR. THIS STUDY REVIEWED LITERATURE REPORTS ON ENCEPHALIC ACTIVITY RELATED TO ANALGESIA INDUCED BY YOGA MEDITATION PRACTICE. METHODS: THIS INTEGRATIVE REVIEW EXAMINED STUDIES PUBLISHED IN THE PUBMED, LILACS AND MEDLINE DATABASES WITHOUT RESTRICTION OF THE YEAR OF PUBLICATION. THE RESEARCH INVOLVED 16 DESCRIPTORS RELATED TO THE WORDS: YOGA, PAIN AND NEUROIMAGING METHODS. INCLUSION CRITERIA INVOLVED ONLY THE PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE ONLINE, WITH FREE ACCESS AND WRITTEN IN ENGLISH. RESULTS: 2 CASE STUDIES AND 1 PILOT STUDY MET THE CRITERIA. YOGA MEDITATION PRACTICE INDUCES ANALGESIA PRIMARILY THROUGH ATTENUATION OF THE MEDIAL PAIN PERCEPTION SYSTEM INCLUDING THE ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX AND INSULA REGIONS, AS WELL AS THE LATERAL SYSTEM INCLUDING THE SECONDARY SENSORY CORTEX AND THALAMUS. CONCLUSION: YOGA INDUCED ANALGESIA IS A POTENTIALLY IMPORTANT ADJUNCT TO CURRENT PAIN MANAGEMENT. THIS INTEGRATIVE REVIEW REVEALED THAT THERE IS A NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH THAT ANALYZES THE ENCEPHALIC REGIONS RELATED TO ANALGESIA INDUCED BY YOGA PRACTICE. 2018 10 1983 37 SLEEP, COGNITION, AND YOGA. STRESS IS ONE OF THE MAJOR PROBLEMS GLOBALLY, ASSOCIATED WITH POOR SLEEP QUALITY AND COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION. MODERN SOCIETY IS PLAGUED BY SLEEP DISTURBANCES, EITHER DUE TO PROFESSIONAL DEMANDS OR LIFESTYLE OR BOTH THE ASPECTS, OFTEN LEADING TO REDUCED ALERTNESS AND COMPROMISED MENTAL FUNCTION, BESIDES THE WELL DOCUMENTED ILL EFFECTS OF DISTURBED SLEEP ON PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS. THIS PERTINENT ISSUE NEEDS TO BE ADDRESSED. YOGA IS AN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY AND WAY OF LIFE. RECENTLY, YOGA PRACTICE HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY POPULAR WORLDWIDE. YOGA PRACTICE IS AN ADJUNCT EFFECTIVE FOR STRESS, SLEEP AND ASSOCIATED DISORDERS. THERE ARE LIMITED WELL CONTROLLED PUBLISHED STUDIES CONDUCTED IN THIS AREA. WE REVIEWED THE AVAILABLE LITERATURE INCLUDING THE EFFECT OF MODERN LIFESTYLE IN CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS, ADULTS AND GERIATRIC POPULATION. THE ROLE OF YOGA AND MEDITATION IN OPTIMIZING SLEEP ARCHITECTURE AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS LEADING TO OPTIMAL BRAIN FUNCTIONING IN NORMAL AND DISEASED STATE IS DISCUSSED. WE INCLUDED ARTICLES PUBLISHED IN ENGLISH WITH NO FIXED TIME DURATION FOR LITERATURE SEARCH. LITERATURE WAS SEARCHED MAINLY BY USING PUBMED AND SCIENCE DIRECT SEARCH ENGINES AND CRITICALLY EXAMINED. STUDIES HAVE REVEALED POSITIVE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON SLEEP AND COGNITIVE SKILLS AMONG HEALTHY ADULTS AS WELL AS PATIENTS OF SOME NEUROLOGICAL DISEASES. FURTHER, ON EVALUATING THE PUBLISHED STUDIES, IT IS CONCLUDED THAT SLEEP AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS ARE OPTIMIZED BY YOGA PRACTICE, WHICH BRINGS ABOUT CHANGES IN AUTONOMIC FUNCTION, STRUCTURAL CHANGES, CHANGES IN METABOLISM, NEUROCHEMISTRY AND IMPROVED FUNCTIONAL BRAIN NETWORK CONNECTIVITY IN KEY REGIONS OF THE BRAIN. 2021 11 76 24 A HEURISTIC MODEL LINKING YOGA PHILOSOPHY AND SELF-REFLECTION TO EXAMINE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF ADD-ON YOGA TREATMENT IN SCHIZOPHRENIA. PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE SUGGESTS EFFICACY OF YOGA AS ADD-ON TREATMENT FOR SCHIZOPHRENIA, BUT THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM BY WHICH YOGA IMPROVES THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA IS NOT COMPLETELY UNDERSTOOD. YOGA IMPROVES SELF-REFLECTION IN HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS, AND SELF-REFLECTION ABNORMALITIES ARE TYPICALLY SEEN IN SCHIZOPHRENIA. HOWEVER, WHETHER YOGA TREATMENT IMPROVES IMPAIRMENTS IN SELF-REFLECTION TYPICALLY SEEN IN PATIENTS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA IS NOT EXAMINED. THIS PAPER DISCUSSES THE POTENTIAL MECHANISM OF YOGA IN THE TREATMENT OF SCHIZOPHRENIA AND PROPOSES A TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS FOR FURTHER EMPIRICAL STUDIES. IT IS PROPOSED THAT SELF-REFLECTION ABNORMALITIES IN SCHIZOPHRENIA IMPROVE WITH YOGA AND THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH THIS CAN BE EXAMINED USING EMPIRICAL BEHAVIOURAL MEASURES AND NEUROIMAGING MEASURES SUCH AS MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING. 2016 12 203 20 A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE EXAMINING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES UNDERLYING THE THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS OF HATHA YOGA. AN ESTIMATED 7.4 MILLION AMERICANS CURRENTLY PRACTICE HATHA YOGA. MOREOVER, 64% OF INDIVIDUALS WHO PRACTICE YOGA REPORT DOING SO FOR WELL-BEING. PREVIOUS RESEARCH HAS REPORTED AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN YOGA PRACTICE AND SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING; HOWEVER, FEW STUDIES HAVE INVESTIGATED THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INVOLVED. THE FOLLOWING REVIEW PROVIDES AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE, WHICH CONCEPTUALIZES YOGA AS A MIND-BODY PRACTICE. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF HATHA YOGA IS PROVIDED THAT DESCRIBES THE PURPORTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND THE RELAXATION RESPONSE. A REVIEW OF THE EMERGING LITERATURE RELATED TO NITRIC OXIDE AND OXIDATIVE STRESS AS POTENTIAL MECHANISMS IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND WELL-BEING ALSO IS INCLUDED. THE ARTICLE CONCLUDES WITH A BRIEF DISCUSSION OF THE STATE OF THE RESEARCH AND PROVIDES SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES. 2008 13 1951 20 SCIENCE OF THE MIND: ANCIENT YOGA TEXTS AND MODERN STUDIES. THE PRACTICE OF YOGA IS GAINING IN POPULARITY WITH A WIDE RANGE OF PRACTICES. RECENT RESEARCH AND DESCRIPTIONS FROM THE ANCIENT TEXTS ARE OFTEN CONCURRENT WITH REGARD TO THE EFFECTS OF THE PRACTICE, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT EXPECTED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MODERN SCIENTIFIC TERMS AND THOSE USED IN THE ORIGINAL TEXTS. VOLUNTARILY REGULATED YOGA BREATHING PRACTICES FORM A BRIDGE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHANGES. THE VOLUNTARILY REGULATED YOGA BREATHING HAS DISTINCT EFFECTS ON METABOLISM, THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, HIGHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS, AND MENTAL STATE. THE EFFECTS OF MEDITATION ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND MENTAL STATE ARE EVEN CLEARER. 2013 14 1337 26 HOW DOES YOGA REDUCE STRESS? A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF MECHANISMS OF CHANGE AND GUIDE TO FUTURE INQUIRY. YOGA IS INCREASINGLY USED IN CLINICAL SETTINGS FOR A VARIETY OF MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH ISSUES, PARTICULARLY STRESS-RELATED ILLNESSES AND CONCERNS, AND HAS DEMONSTRATED PROMISING EFFICACY. YET THE WAYS IN WHICH YOGA REDUCES STRESS REMAIN POORLY UNDERSTOOD. TO EXAMINE THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING THE MECHANISMS THROUGH WHICH YOGA REDUCES STRESS, WE CONDUCTED A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE, INCLUDING ANY YOGA INTERVENTION THAT MEASURED STRESS AS A PRIMARY DEPENDENT VARIABLE AND TESTED A MECHANISM OF THE RELATIONSHIP WITH MEDIATION. OUR ELECTRONIC DATABASE SEARCH YIELDED 926 ABSTRACTS, OF WHICH 71 WERE CHOSEN FOR FURTHER INSPECTION AND 5 WERE SELECTED FOR THE FINAL SYSTEMATIC REVIEW. THESE FIVE STUDIES EXAMINED THREE PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS (POSITIVE AFFECT, MINDFULNESS AND SELF-COMPASSION) AND FOUR BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS (POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS, INTERLEUKIN-6, C-REACTIVE PROTEIN AND CORTISOL). POSITIVE AFFECT, SELF-COMPASSION, INHIBITION OF THE POSTERIOR HYPOTHALAMUS AND SALIVARY CORTISOL WERE ALL SHOWN TO MEDIATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA AND STRESS. IT IS STRIKING THAT THE LITERATURE DESCRIBING POTENTIAL MECHANISMS IS GROWING RAPIDLY, YET ONLY SEVEN MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN EMPIRICALLY EXAMINED; MORE RESEARCH IS NECESSARY. ALSO, FUTURE RESEARCH OUGHT TO INCLUDE MORE RIGOROUS METHODOLOGY, INCLUDING SUFFICIENT POWER, STUDY RANDOMISATION AND APPROPRIATE CONTROL GROUPS. 2015 15 2429 23 YOGA AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE - A REVIEW AND COMPARISON. YOGA IS A MULTIFACETED SPIRITUAL TOOL WITH ENHANCED HEALTH AND WELL-BEING AS ONE OF ITS POSITIVE EFFECTS. THE COMPONENTS OF YOGA WHICH ARE VERY COMMONLY APPLIED FOR HEALTH BENEFITS ARE ASANAS (PHYSICAL POSTURES), PRANAYAMA (REGULATED BREATHING) AND MEDITATION. IN THE CONTEXT OF ASANAS, YOGA RESEMBLES MORE OF A PHYSICAL EXERCISE, WHICH MAY LEAD TO THE PERCEPTION THAT YOGA IS ANOTHER KIND OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE. THIS ARTICLE AIMS AT EXPLORING THE COMMONALITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN YOGA AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE IN TERMS OF CONCEPTS, POSSIBLE MECHANISMS AND EFFECTIVENESS FOR HEALTH BENEFITS. A NARRATIVE REVIEW IS UNDERTAKEN BASED ON TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE FOR YOGA, ALONG WITH SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES AVAILABLE ON YOGA AND EXERCISE INCLUDING HEAD-TO-HEAD COMPARATIVE TRIALS WITH HEALTHY VOLUNTEERS AND PATIENTS WITH VARIOUS DISEASE CONDITIONS. PHYSICAL EXERCISES AND THE PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF YOGA PRACTICES HAVE SEVERAL SIMILARITIES, BUT ALSO IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES. EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT YOGA INTERVENTIONS APPEAR TO BE EQUAL AND/OR SUPERIOR TO EXERCISE IN MOST OUTCOME MEASURES. EMPHASIS ON BREATH REGULATION, MINDFULNESS DURING PRACTICE, AND IMPORTANCE GIVEN TO MAINTENANCE OF POSTURES ARE SOME OF THE ELEMENTS WHICH DIFFERENTIATE YOGA PRACTICES FROM PHYSICAL EXERCISES. 2016 16 406 30 BIOLOGICAL MARKERS FOR THE EFFECTS OF YOGA AS A COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE. FROM THE LAST FEW DECADES, THERE ARE INCREASING INCIDENCES OF DISORDERS LIKE PREMATURE AGING, CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS, FIBROMYALGIA, AND ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADDITION TO MEDICATION, RESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND THAT YOGA, A MIND-BODY THERAPY, CAN BE USED AS AN ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE. YOGA COMBINES SPECIFIC PHYSICAL POSTURES, BREATHING TECHNIQUES, RELAXATION AND MEDITATION THAT IMPROVE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH OF THE BODY. THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW IS TO COLLATE THE RESEARCH EVIDENCES CLAIMING HEALTH BENEFITS OF PERFORMING TRADITIONAL YOGIC PRACTICES. WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL AND OTHER RELIABLE INDICATORS TO SUGGEST THAT DOING ASANAS, PRANAYAMA, AND MEDITATION COULD REDUCE OR TREAT WIDE RANGE OF LIFE STYLE DISORDERS ARE DISCUSSED. IMPORTANTLY, THESE INDICATORS ARE OTHERWISE USED TO ASSESS THE SEVERITY OF DISORDERS. IN MANY OF THE STUDY IT HAS BEEN SHOWN THAT YOGA IMPROVES THE REDOX HEALTH OF BODY WHOSE IMBALANCE HAS BEEN WELL PROVEN TO CAUSE MANY HEALTH COMPLICATIONS. THE IMPACT OF YOGA ON NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES HAVE REVEALED THAT IT REVERSES MEMORY LOSS, REDUCE ANXIETY, DEPRESSION AND STRESS, THE BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF DISEASE. HOWEVER, MOST STUDIES HAVE SEVERAL LIMITATIONS AND THEREFORE FURTHER RESEARCH INTO YOGA IS NEEDED TO VALIDATE THESE FINDINGS. 2019 17 2516 23 YOGA CLINICAL RESEARCH REVIEW. IN THIS PAPER RECENT RESEARCH IS REVIEWED ON THE EFFECTS OF YOGA POSES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS INCLUDING ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION, ON PAIN SYNDROMES, CARDIOVASCULAR, AUTOIMMUNE AND IMMUNE CONDITIONS AND ON PREGNANCY. FURTHER, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF YOGA INCLUDING DECREASED HEARTRATE AND BLOOD PRESSURE AND THE PHYSICAL EFFECTS INCLUDING WEIGHT LOSS AND INCREASED MUSCLE STRENGTH ARE REVIEWED. FINALLY, POTENTIAL UNDERLYING MECHANISMS ARE PROPOSED INCLUDING THE STIMULATION OF PRESSURE RECEPTORS LEADING TO ENHANCED VAGAL ACTIVITY AND REDUCED CORTISOL. THE REDUCTION IN CORTISOL, IN TURN, MAY CONTRIBUTE TO POSITIVE EFFECTS SUCH AS ENHANCED IMMUNE FUNCTION AND A LOWER PREMATURITY RATE. 2011 18 1338 22 HOW DOES YOGA REDUCE STRESS? EMBODIED COGNITION AND EMOTION HIGHLIGHT THE INFLUENCE OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM. YOGA IS AN INCREASINGLY POPULAR ACTIVITY, PERHAPS BECAUSE OF ITS ASSOCIATION WITH STRESS REDUCTION AND RELAXATION - AN ASSOCIATION THAT IS GENERALLY SUPPORTED BY EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE. UNDERSTANDING OF THE MEDIATING VARIABLES IS, HOWEVER, LIMITED. GIVEN THAT, THE PURPOSE OF THIS PAPER IS TO PRESENT A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE THAT ENCOURAGES SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH REGARDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOGA, STRESS, AND MUSCULOSKELETAL ACTIVITY. THIS EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE PARALLELS POPULAR INTEREST IN THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION AND EMPHASIZES THE INFLUENCE OF BODY POSITION ON THINKING AS WELL AS EMOTION. THOSE INFLUENCES TAKE ON ADDED MEANING IN THE CONTEXT OF THE COGNITIVE APPRAISAL THEORY AND THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF CHALLENGE AND THREAT. INVESTIGATIONS OF EMBODIED COGNITION SUGGEST THAT YOGA MAY REDUCE STRESS BY AFFECTING THE WAY INDIVIDUALS APPRAISE STRESSORS. THE COMBINATION OF BODY POSITION AND COMMON COMPONENTS OF YOGA PRACTICE MAY ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO THAT EFFECT, PARTICULARLY WHEN CONSIDERING THOUGHTS ABOUT THE SELF AND FEELINGS OF CONFIDENCE. FINDINGS REGARDING EMBODIED EMOTION MAKE A SIMILAR CONTRIBUTION TO UNDERSTANDING THE IMPLICATIONS OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH FINDINGS AND COMMON YOGA PRACTICES. CONSIDERING YOGA AND STRESS FROM AN EMBODIED PERSPECTIVE ALSO HIGHLIGHTS THE ROLE OF THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM IN THE STRESS PROCESS, LEADING TO THE QUESTION OF WHETHER YOGA INFLUENCES STRESS BY DIRECTLY INFLUENCING THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM, INDIRECTLY BY INFLUENCING AWARENESS OF THAT SYSTEM, OR THROUGH A COMBINATION OF THE TWO. THOSE QUESTIONS, IN TURN, HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE OF EXPANDING INVESTIGATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES, BODY POSITION, MUSCULOSKELETAL ACTIVITY DURING YOGA, AND THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THOSE VARIABLES. 2019 19 1266 18 FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND BRAIN FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION IN AGING YOGA AND MEDITATION PRACTITIONERS. NUMEROUS STUDIES HAVE DOCUMENTED THE NORMAL AGE-RELATED DECLINE OF NEURAL STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE. PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT MEDITATION MAY REDUCE DECLINE IN SPECIFIC COGNITIVE DOMAINS AND IN BRAIN STRUCTURE. HERE WE EXTENDED THIS RESEARCH BY INVESTIGATING THE RELATION BETWEEN AGE AND FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND RESTING STATE BRAIN FUNCTIONAL NETWORK ARCHITECTURE USING GRAPH THEORY, IN MIDDLE-AGED YOGA AND MEDITATION PRACTITIONERS, AND MATCHED CONTROLS. FLUID INTELLIGENCE DECLINED SLOWER IN YOGA PRACTITIONERS AND MEDITATORS COMBINED THAN IN CONTROLS. RESTING STATE FUNCTIONAL NETWORKS OF YOGA PRACTITIONERS AND MEDITATORS COMBINED WERE MORE INTEGRATED AND MORE RESILIENT TO DAMAGE THAN THOSE OF CONTROLS. FURTHERMORE, MINDFULNESS WAS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH FLUID INTELLIGENCE, RESILIENCE, AND GLOBAL NETWORK EFFICIENCY. THESE FINDINGS REVEAL THE POSSIBILITY TO INCREASE RESILIENCE AND TO SLOW THE DECLINE OF FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND BRAIN FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE AND SUGGEST THAT MINDFULNESS PLAYS A MECHANISTIC ROLE IN THIS PRESERVATION. 2014 20 2126 23 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF YOGA FOR DEPRESSION: A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW. IN THE UNITED STATES, THE PREVALENCE OF DEPRESSION IS QUITE HIGH-9% IN THE GENERAL POPULATION-WITH WOMEN, YOUNG ADULTS, AND SENIORS PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE. IN RECENT YEARS, INCREASING NUMBERS OF PEOPLE ARE TURNING TO COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE (CAM) FOR RELIEF FROM DEPRESSION AND OTHER MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS. ONE FORM OF CAM, YOGA, HAS BEEN GROWING IN POPULARITY; THIS RISE IN POPULARITY HAS, IN PART, BEEN DRIVEN BY INTEREST IN HOW THIS PRACTICE, WITH ITS MINDFULNESS AND MEDITATION ASPECTS, MAY DECREASE DEPRESSION. THIS CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW EXAMINES SIX RECENT STUDIES ON YOGA AS AN INTERVENTION; SPECIFICALLY, THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON YOGA STYLES IN WHICH THE PRACTICE OF YOGA POSES, CALLED ASANAS, IS THE CORE COMPONENT. ALTHOUGH THE SIGNIFICANT POSITIVE FINDINGS ARE PROMISING, THE STUDIES HAD METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS; IDENTIFICATION OF THESE LIMITATIONS CAN INFORM FUTURE STUDIES. 2014