1  4195 122 METABOLIC MEMORY: MECHANISMS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA OF DIABETES LEADS TO MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS THAT SEVERELY IMPACT QUALITY OF LIFE. DIABETIC RETINOPATHY (DR) MAY BE THE MOST COMMON OF THESE AND IS A LEADING CAUSE OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT AND BLINDNESS AMONG WORKING AGE ADULTS IN DEVELOPED NATIONS. MANY LARGE-SCALE TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES CLINICAL TRIALS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT EARLY INTENSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL CAN REDUCE THE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF MICRO AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. ON THE OTHER HAND, EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PROSPECTIVE DATA HAVE REVEALED THAT THE STRESSORS OF DIABETIC VASCULATURE PERSIST BEYOND THE POINT WHEN GLYCEMIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ACHIEVED. THESE KINDS OF PERSISTENT ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HYPERGLYCEMIA ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF COMPLICATIONS HAS BEEN DEFINED AS "METABOLIC MEMORY", AND OXIDATIVE STRESS, ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN THE PROCESS. RECENT STUDIES HAVE INDICATED THAT SUCH "HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY" MAY ALSO INFLUENCE DR, SUGGESTING THAT MANIPULATION OF HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY MAY PROVE A BENEFICIAL APPROACH TO PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. THIS REVIEW SUMMARIZES THE EVIDENCE FROM DR-RELATED CLINICAL TRIALS AND MECHANISTIC STUDIES TO INVESTIGATE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF METABOLIC MEMORY IN DR AND UNDERSTAND ITS POTENTIAL AS A TARGET OF MOLECULAR THERAPEUTICS AIMED AT REVERSING HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
2  1389  37 DIABETIC RETINOPATHY AND SYSTEMIC FACTORS. DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, AN OCULARDISEASE, IS GOVERNED BY SYSTEMIC AS WELL AS LOCAL OCULAR FACTORS. THESE INCLUDE PRIMARILY CHRONIC LEVELS OF BLOOD GLUCOSE. INDIVIDUALS WITH CHRONICALLY ELEVATED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS HAVE SUBSTANTIALLY MORE, AND MORE SEVERE, RETINOPATHY THAN THOSE WITH LOWER BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS. THE RELATIONSHIP OF BLOOD GLUCOSE TO RETINOPATHY IS CONTINUOUS, WITH NO THRESHOLD ALTHOUGH INDIVIDUALS WITH HEMOGLOBIN A1C LEVELS (A MEASURE OF CHRONIC GLYCEMIA) <6.5%, GENERALLY DEVELOP LITTLE OR NO RETINOPATHY. BLOOD PRESSURE LEVELS HAVE BEEN CLAIMED TO INFLUENCE RETINOPATHY DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION, BUT MULTIPLE CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIALS OF ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS IN DIABETIC SUBJECTS HAVE PRODUCED ONLY WEAK EVIDENCE OF BENEFIT FROM BLOOD PRESSURE LOWERING ON THE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. ELEVATED BLOOD LIPIDS SEEM TO PLAY A ROLE IN THE PROGRESSION OF RETINOPATHY, AND TWO TRIALS OF FENOFIBRATE, A LIPID-LOWERING AGENT THAT HAS NOT PROVED EFFECTIVE IN PREVENTING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, HAVE SHOWN BENEFIT IN PREVENTING RETINOPATHY PROGRESSION. THE MECHANISM OF THIS EFFECT MAY NOT, HOWEVER, BE DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE REDUCTION IN BLOOD LIPIDS. FINALLY, THERE IS STRONG, BUT ONLY CIRCUMSTANTIAL, EVIDENCE FOR A GENETIC OR EPIGENETIC INFLUENCE ON THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. DESPITE THE POWER OF LARGE-SCALE EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES AND MODERN MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES, THE GENE OR GENES, WHICH PREDISPOSE OR PROTECT AGAINST THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY REMAIN ELUSIVE.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
3  2171  38 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS. THE INCIDENCE OF DIABETES MELLITUS, A CHRONIC METABOLIC DISEASE ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH PREDISPOSING GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, IS INCREASING GLOBALLY. AS A RESULT, IT IS EXPECTED THAT THERE WILL ALSO BE AN INCREASING INCIDENCE OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS WHICH ARISE AS A RESULT OF POOR GLYCEMIC CONTROL. COMPLICATIONS INCLUDE CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES, NEPHROPATHY, RETINOPATHY AND DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS. THE FINDINGS OF SEVERAL MAJOR CLINICAL TRIALS HAVE IDENTIFIED THAT DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS MAY ARISE EVEN AFTER MANY YEARS OF PROPER GLYCEMIC CONTROL. THIS HAS LED TO THE CONCEPT OF PERSISTENT EPIGENETIC CHANGES. VARIOUS EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS TO THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETES AND DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS. THE AIM OF THIS REVIEW IS TO PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF THE PATHOBIOLOGY OF TYPE 2 DIABETES WITH AN EMPHASIS ON COMPLICATIONS, PARTICULARLY DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS. AN OVERVIEW OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IS PROVIDED AND THE FOCUS IS ON THE EMERGING EVIDENCE FOR ABERRANT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN DIABETIC FOOT ULCERS.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
4  2210  46 EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AND POTENTIAL NEW TREATMENT TARGETS IN DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. RETINOPATHY IS A DEBILITATING VASCULAR COMPLICATION OF DIABETES. AS WITH OTHER DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS, DIABETIC RETINOPATHY (DR) IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE METABOLIC MEMORY, WHICH HAS BEEN OBSERVED BOTH IN DR PATIENTS AND IN DR ANIMAL MODELS. EVIDENCES HAVE PROVIDED THAT AFTER A PERIOD OF POOR GLUCOSE CONTROL INSULIN OR DIABETES DRUG TREATMENT FAILS TO PREVENT THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DR EVEN WHEN GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS REINSTITUTED (GLUCOSE NORMALIZATION), SUGGESTING A METABOLIC MEMORY PHENOMENON. RECENT STUDIES ALSO UNDERLINE THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC CHROMATIN MODIFICATIONS AS MEDIATORS OF THE METABOLIC MEMORY. INDEED, EPIGENETIC CHANGES MAY LEAD TO STABLE MODIFICATION OF GENE EXPRESSION, PARTICIPATING IN DR PATHOGENESIS. MOREOVER, INCREASING EVIDENCES SUGGEST THAT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SUCH AS CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA ARE IMPLICATED DR PROGRESSION AND MAY ALSO AFFECT THE EPIGENETIC STATE. HERE WE REVIEW RECENT FINDINGS DEMONSTRATING THE KEY ROLE OF EPIGENETICS IN THE PROGRESSION OF DR. FURTHER ELUCIDATION OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, ACTING BOTH AT THE CIS- AND TRANS-CHROMATIN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS, WILL YIELD NEW INSIGHTS INTO THE PATHOGENESIS OF DR AND WILL OPEN THE WAY FOR THE DISCOVERY OF NOVEL THERAPEUTIC TARGETS TO PREVENT DR PROGRESSION.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
5  4137  32 MECHANISMS OF METABOLIC MEMORY AND RENAL HYPOXIA AS A THERAPEUTIC TARGET IN DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS A WORLDWIDE PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM. THE DEFINITION OF DKD IS UNDER DISCUSSION. ALTHOUGH THE TERM DKD WAS ORIGINALLY DEFINED AS 'KIDNEY DISEASE SPECIFIC TO DIABETES,' DKD FREQUENTLY MEANS CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE WITH DIABETES MELLITUS AND INCLUDES NOT ONLY CLASSICAL DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY, BUT ALSO KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION AS A RESULT OF NEPHROSCLEROSIS AND OTHER CAUSES. METABOLIC MEMORY PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN THE PROGRESSION OF VARIOUS COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES, INCLUDING DKD. THE MECHANISMS OF METABOLIC MEMORY IN DKD ARE SUPPOSED TO INCLUDE ADVANCED GLYCATION END-PRODUCTS, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS AND NON-CODING RIBONUCLEIC ACID INCLUDING MICRO RIBONUCLEIC ACID. REGARDLESS OF THE PRESENCE OF DIABETES MELLITUS, THE FINAL COMMON PATHWAY IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE IS CHRONIC KIDNEY HYPOXIA, WHICH INFLUENCES EPIGENETIC PROCESSES, INCLUDING DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, AND CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN MICRO RIBONUCLEIC ACID AND CHROMATIN. THEREFORE, HYPOXIA AND OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE APPROPRIATE TARGETS OF THERAPIES AGAINST DKD. PROLYL HYDROXYLASE DOMAIN INHIBITOR ENHANCES THE DEFENSIVE MECHANISMS AGAINST HYPOXIA. BARDOXOLONE METHYL PROTECTS AGAINST OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND CAN EVEN REVERSE IMPAIRED RENAL FUNCTION; A PHASE 2 TRIAL WITH CONSIDERABLE ATTENTION TO HEART COMPLICATIONS IS CURRENTLY ONGOING IN JAPAN.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
6  6575  37 TREATMENT OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE: CURRENT AND FUTURE. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS THE MAJOR CAUSE OF END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE. HOWEVER, ONLY RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM INHIBITOR WITH MULTIDISCIPLINARY TREATMENTS IS EFFECTIVE FOR DKD. IN 2019, SODIUM-GLUCOSE COTRANSPORTER 2 (SGLT2) INHIBITOR SHOWED EFFICACY AGAINST DKD IN CANAGLIFLOZIN AND RENAL EVENTS IN DIABETES WITH ESTABLISHED NEPHROPATHY CLINICAL EVALUATION (CREDENCE) TRIAL, ADDING A NEW TREATMENT OPTION. HOWEVER, THE PROGRESSION OF DKD HAS NOT BEEN COMPLETELY CONTROLLED. THE PATIENTS WITH TRANSIENT EXPOSURE TO HYPERGLYCEMIA DEVELOP DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS, INCLUDING DKD, EVEN AFTER NORMALIZATION OF THEIR BLOOD GLUCOSE. TEMPORARY HYPERGLYCEMIA CAUSES ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCT (AGE) ACCUMULATIONS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES AS METABOLIC MEMORY. THE DRUGS THAT IMPROVE METABOLIC MEMORY ARE AWAITED, AND AGE INHIBITORS AND HISTONE MODIFICATION INHIBITORS ARE THE FOCUS OF CLINICAL AND BASIC RESEARCH. IN ADDITION, INCRETIN-RELATED DRUGS SHOWED A RENOPROTECTIVE ABILITY IN MANY CLINICAL TRIALS, AND THESE TRIALS WITH RENAL OUTCOME AS THEIR PRIMARY ENDPOINT ARE CURRENTLY ONGOING. HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE FACTOR PROLYL HYDROXYLASE INHIBITORS RECENTLY APPROVED FOR RENAL ANEMIA MAY BE RENOPROTECTIVE SINCE THEY IMPROVE TUBULOINTERSTITIAL HYPOXIA. FURTHERMORE, NF-E2-RELATED FACTOR 2 ACTIVATORS IMPROVED THE GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE OF DKD PATIENTS IN BARDOXOLONE METHYL TREATMENT: RENAL FUNCTION IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE/TYPE 2 DIABETES (BEAM) TRIAL AND PHASE II STUDY OF BARDOXOLONE METHYL IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE AND TYPE 2 DIABETES (TSUBAKI) TRIAL. THUS, FOLLOWING SGLT2 INHIBITOR, NUMEROUS NOVEL DRUGS COULD BE UTILIZED IN TREATING DKD. FUTURE STUDIES ARE EXPECTED TO PROVIDE NEW INSIGHTS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
7  4433  34 MOLECULAR COMPLEXITIES UNDERLYING THE VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES MELLITUS - A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW. DIABETES IS A CHRONIC DISEASE, CHARACTERIZED BY HYPERGLYCEMIA, WHICH REFERS TO THE ELEVATED LEVELS OF GLUCOSE IN THE BLOOD, DUE TO THE INABILITY OF THE BODY TO PRODUCE OR USE INSULIN EFFECTIVELY. CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA LEVELS LEAD TO MACROVASCULAR AND MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. THE MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS CONSIST OF PERIPHERAL ARTERY DISEASE (PAD), CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVD) AND CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASES, WHILE THE MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS COMPRISE OF DIABETIC MICROANGIOPATHY, DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY, DIABETIC RETINOPATHY AND DIABETIC NEUROPATHY. VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN MEDIATING BOTH MACROVASCULAR AND MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS UNDER HYPERGLYCEMIC CONDITIONS. IN DIABETIC MICROVASCULATURE, THE INTRACELLULAR HYPERGLYCEMIA CAUSES DAMAGE TO THE VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM THROUGH - (I) ACTIVATION OF FOUR BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS, NAMELY THE POLYOL PATHWAY, PROTEIN KINASE C (PKC) PATHWAY, ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS (AGE) PATHWAY AND HEXOSAMINE PATHWAY, ALL OF WHICH COMMUTES GLUCOSE AND ITS INTERMEDIATES LEADING TO OVERPRODUCTION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES, (II) DYSREGULATION OF GROWTH FACTORS AND CYTOKINES, (III) EPIGENETIC CHANGES WHICH CONCERN THE CHANGES IN DNA AS A RESPONSE TO INTRACELLULAR CHANGES, AND (IV) ABNORMALITIES IN NON-CODING RNAS, SPECIFICALLY MICRORNAS. THIS REVIEW WILL FOCUS ON GAINING AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOLECULAR COMPLEXITIES UNDERLYING THE VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS IN DIABETES MELLITUS, TO INCREASE OUR UNDERSTANDING TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW MECHANISTIC THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES TO PREVENT OR TREAT DIABETES-INDUCED VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
8  1384  41 DIABETES AND KIDNEY DISEASE: EMPHASIS ON TREATMENT WITH SGLT-2 INHIBITORS AND GLP-1 RECEPTOR AGONISTS. KIDNEY DISEASE IS A FREQUENT MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATION OF BOTH TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. HISTORIC TRIALS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT A TIGHT GLYCAEMIC CONTROL IS THE MOST POWERFUL APPROACH TO DECREASE THE CHANCES OF DEVELOPING DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. HOWEVER, HAVING AN HBA1C < 7% DOES NOT COMPLETELY SUPPRESS THE RISK OF KIDNEY DISEASE. THE OBSERVED RESIDUAL RISK IS LIKELY ASCRIBABLE TO TWO PHENOMENA: 1- THE PRESENCE OF RISK FACTORS AND ALTERATIONS ADDITIVE TO AND INDEPENDENT OF GLYCAEMIA, AND 2- THE ACTIVATION OF LONG-LASTING IMBALANCES BY PERIODS OF EXPOSURE TO UNCONTROLLED GLYCEMIA, A PHENOMENON REFERRED TO AS METABOLIC MEMORY OR LEGACY EFFECT. LONG-LASTING OXIDATIVE STRESS, EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, CELLULAR SENESCENCE, AND THE RESULTING CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION ARE ALL CANDIDATE MECHANISMS EXPLAINING THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEPHROPATHY DESPITE PROPER CONTROL OF RISK FACTORS. RECENTLY, TWO CLASSES OF DRUGS, I.E. GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE (GLP) 1 RECEPTOR AGONISTS (RA) AND SODIUM-GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER 2 INHIBITORS (SGLT-I) HAVE CHANGED THIS SCENARIO. INDEED, CARDIOVASCULAR OUTCOME AND OTHER TRIALS HAVE CLEARLY SHOWN A RENOPROTECTIVE EFFECT FOR THESE DRUGS, WELL-BEYOND THEIR GLUCOSE-LOWERING PROPERTIES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE: 1- SELECTED KEY TRIALS AND MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE AND 2- THE RESULTS RELATIVE TO RENAL ENDPOINTS IN CLINICAL TRIALS OF GLP-1 RA AND SGLT-2I. THEN, WE BRIEFLY DISCUSS SOME OF THE HYPOTHESES POSITED TO EXPLAIN THE MARKED RENOPROTECTIVE PROPERTIES OF THESE TWO CLASSES, EVIDENCING THE STILL EXISTING GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE AND PROPOSING FUTURE DIRECTIONS TO FURTHER IMPLEMENT THE USE OF THESE POWERFUL, DISEASE-MODIFYING DRUGS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
9  3884  73 KIDNEY DISEASE IN DIABETES. PERSONS WITH DIABETES MAKE UP THE FASTEST GROWING GROUP OF KIDNEY DIALYSIS AND TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS IN THE UNITED STATES. IN 1985, WHEN THE FIRST EDITION OF DIABETES IN AMERICA WAS PUBLISHED, 20,961 PERSONS WITH DIABETES WERE RECEIVING RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY, REPRESENTING 29% OF ALL NEW CASES OF END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD). BY 2012, 239,837 PERSONS WITH DIABETES WERE ON RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY, ACCOUNTING FOR 44% OF ALL NEW ESRD CASES. THE INCREASED COUNT REFLECTS GROWTH IN DIABETES PREVALENCE AND INCREASED ACCESS TO DIALYSIS AND TRANSPLANTATION. THOSE WITH A PRIMARY DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES HAVE LOWER SURVIVAL RELATIVE TO OTHER CAUSES OF ESRD, PRIMARILY BECAUSE OF THE COEXISTENT MORBIDITY ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES, PARTICULARLY CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVD). WHILE SURVIVAL ON DIALYSIS HAS SLOWLY IMPROVED ACROSS MODALITIES SINCE THE 1990S, IT REMAINS REDUCED IN PERSONS WITH DIABETES, HALF OF WHOM DIE WITHIN 3 YEARS OF BEGINNING DIALYSIS IN THE UNITED STATES. SIMILAR TO PERSONS WITH ESRD IN GENERAL, THE LEADING CAUSES OF DEATH AMONG ADULTS WITH DIABETES WHO STARTED DIALYSIS IN 1995-2009 WERE CVD (58% OF THE DEATHS) AND INFECTIONS (13% OF THE DEATHS). KIDNEY TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS WITH DIABETES HAVE MUCH BETTER SURVIVAL THAN THOSE ON DIALYSIS, INDICATING A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT OF THE TYPE OF RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY (TRANSPLANT VERSUS DIALYSIS) ON LONG-TERM SURVIVAL. KIDNEY FAILURE AFFECTS ABOUT 1% OF PERSONS WITH DIABETES IN THE UNITED STATES. A CONSIDERABLY HIGHER PROPORTION, ABOUT 40%, HAVE LESS SEVERE KIDNEY DISEASE. SINCE THE SECOND EDITION OF DIABETES IN AMERICA WAS PUBLISHED IN 1995, A WEALTH OF NEW INFORMATION HAS CONTRIBUTED SUBSTANTIALLY TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF KIDNEY DISEASE ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES. IN 2002, THE NATIONAL KIDNEY FOUNDATION'S KIDNEY DISEASE OUTCOME QUALITY INITIATIVE PUBLISHED A UNIFORM DEFINITION OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) AND CLASSIFICATION OF ITS STAGES IRRESPECTIVE OF UNDERLYING CAUSE, THUS PROVIDING A COMMON LANGUAGE FOR DEFINING BOTH THE SEVERITY AND PROGNOSIS OF KIDNEY DISEASE. THE DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CKD WERE SUBSEQUENTLY UPDATED AND REFINED BY THE KIDNEY DISEASE: IMPROVING GLOBAL OUTCOMES IN 2012. ACCORDINGLY, CKD IS CLASSIFIED BASED ON BOTH ALBUMINURIA AND GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR) CATEGORIES, AND TOGETHER WITH KIDNEY FAILURE, THESE CONDITIONS ARE COLLECTIVELY REFERRED TO AS CKD, REGARDLESS OF ETIOLOGY. IN ADDITION, THE KIDNEY DISEASE: IMPROVING GLOBAL OUTCOMES RECOMMENDS USING EQUATIONS TO ESTIMATE GFR (EGFR), WHICH INCLUDE THE ROUTINELY OBTAINED VARIABLES SERUM CREATININE, AGE, SEX, AND RACE/ETHNICITY. THE USE OF SERUM CYSTATIN C, AN ENDOGENOUS FILTRATION MARKER LESS INFLUENCED THAN SERUM CREATININE BY VARIATIONS IN MUSCLE MASS, DIET, AND TUBULAR SECRETION, HAS EMERGED AS AN ALTERNATIVE OR AN ADJUNCT TO SERUM CREATININE-BASED EQUATIONS, PARTICULARLY IN PERSONS WITH DIABETES, IN WHOM EARLY KIDNEY DISEASE IS OFTEN CHARACTERIZED BY ELEVATED GFR. SINCE THE LATE 1990S, NEW MOLECULAR MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN DEFINED THAT ARE HELPING TO EXPLAIN THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. GLOMERULAR STRUCTURAL LESIONS WERE FOUND TO EXPLAIN 95% OF THE VARIABILITY IN ALBUMIN EXCRETION AND 78% OF GFR VARIABILITY. THE LATTER PERCENTAGE INCREASED TO 92% BY ADDING INDICES OF GLOMERULAR-TUBULAR JUNCTION ABNORMALITIES AND INTERSTITIAL EXPANSION TO THE REGRESSION MODELS. PODOCYTE INJURY APPEARS TO PLAY AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN THE PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. IN PERSONS WITH EITHER TYPE 1 OR TYPE 2 DIABETES, PODOCYTE CHANGES MAY OCCUR EVEN BEFORE THE INCREASE IN ALBUMINURIA, SUGGESTING THAT DIABETES ITSELF MAY INDUCE PODOCYTE ALTERATIONS. MUCH HAS ALSO BEEN WRITTEN ABOUT THE PROGNOSTIC IMPLICATIONS OF CKD. ELEVATED ALBUMINURIA AND LOW GFR ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ESRD, FATAL AND NONFATAL CVD, AND ALL-CAUSE MORTALITY. A META-ANALYSIS OF 1,024,977 PARTICIPANTS (NEARLY 13% WITH DIABETES) FROM 30 GENERAL POPULATION AND HIGH-RISK CARDIOVASCULAR COHORTS AND 13 CKD COHORTS INDICATED THAT WHILE THE ABSOLUTE RISKS FOR ALL-CAUSE AND CVD MORTALITY ARE HIGHER IN THE PRESENCE OF DIABETES, THE RELATIVE RISKS OF ESRD OR DEATH BY EGFR AND ALBUMINURIA ARE SIMILAR WITH OR WITHOUT DIABETES. THESE FINDINGS UNDERSCORE THE IMPORTANCE OF KIDNEY DISEASE PER SE AS A PREDICTOR OF IMPORTANT CLINICAL OUTCOMES, REGARDLESS OF THE UNDERLYING CAUSE OF KIDNEY DISEASE. NEW BIOMARKERS OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE APPEAR TO HAVE ADDITIONAL PROGNOSTIC INFORMATION BEYOND THAT PROVIDED BY ALBUMINURIA. THESE MARKERS INCLUDE KIDNEY INJURY MOLECULE 1, LIVER FATTY ACID-BINDING PROTEIN, N-ACETYL-BETA-D-GLUCOSAMINIDASE, NEUTROPHIL GELATINASE-ASSOCIATED LIPOCALIN, BETA-TRACE PROTEIN, BETA(2)-MICROGLOBULIN, AND TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTORS 1 AND 2. MANY CONCEPTS ABOUT RISK FACTORS FOR CKD ILLUSTRATED IN THIS CHAPTER HAVE NOT CHANGED SINCE 1995, AND WHERE THEY HAVE, THOSE CHANGES ARE DISCUSSED. IN PARTICULAR, MAJOR ADVANCES HAVE BEEN MADE IN ELUCIDATING THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC COMPLEXITY OF CKD, WHICH CONTRIBUTED TO DEFINING CELLULAR METABOLIC MEMORY AND THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE LONGLASTING EFFECTS OF STRICT GLYCEMIC CONTROL OBSERVED IN PERSONS WITH TYPE 1 DIABETES OR TYPE 2 DIABETES. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF PERSONS WITH DIABETES AND CKD HAVE EXTENDED THE TIME COURSE FROM ONSET OF SEVERE ALBUMINURIA TO ESRD AND REDUCED THE OCCURRENCE OF CVD. IN TYPE 1 DIABETES, THE COMBINED DIABETES CONTROL AND COMPLICATIONS TRIAL (DCCT) AND ITS LONG-TERM FOLLOW-UP, THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DIABETES INTERVENTIONS AND COMPLICATIONS (EDIC) OBSERVATIONAL STUDY, INDICATED THAT INTENSIVE EARLY METABOLIC CONTROL REDUCED THE RISK OF IMPAIRED GFR BY 50% AND OF CVD OUTCOMES BY 42%, WITH A SPECIFIC 57% DECREASE IN MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, STROKE, OR DEATH FROM CVD, EFFECTS THAT WERE PARTLY MEDIATED BY THE REDUCED INCIDENCE OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. AMONG PERSONS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES, A META-ANALYSIS OF RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS INDICATED THAT MORE INTENSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL (GLYCOSYLATED HEMOGLOBIN [A1C] <7%) WAS ASSOCIATED WITH A SIGNIFICANT 10% REDUCTION IN ALBUMINURIA BUT HAD NO EFFECTS ON MORTALITY, KIDNEY FAILURE, OR OTHER VASCULAR OUTCOMES. THE ACTION TO CONTROL CARDIOVASCULAR RISK IN DIABETES (ACCORD) TRIAL, TARGETING AN A1C LEVEL <6.0% IN THE INTENSIVE INTERVENTION ARM, REPORTED AN INCREASED RISK OF CVD DEATH FOR INTENSIVE VERSUS CONVENTIONAL GLYCEMIC CONTROL, ALTHOUGH IT REMAINS UNCLEAR WHETHER THIS EFFECT WAS RELATED TO MORE HYPOGLYCEMIC EPISODES, THE USE OF ADDITIONAL HYPOGLYCEMIC MEDICINES, OR TO THE TARGET GLYCEMIC LEVEL ITSELF. LIKEWISE, THE MODEST GAINS IN INTERMEDIATE OUTCOMES IN THE INTENSIVE TREATMENT ARMS OF THE ACTION IN DIABETES AND VASCULAR DISEASE: PRETERAX AND DIAMICRON MODIFIED RELEASE CONTROLLED EVALUATION (ADVANCE) AND THE VETERANS AFFAIRS DIABETES (VADT) TRIAL WERE COUNTERBALANCED BY A TWOFOLD TO THREEFOLD HIGHER RISK OF SEVERE HYPOGLYCEMIA. TOGETHER, THESE TRIALS INDICATE THAT GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS EXTREMELY USEFUL UP TO A POINT, BUT MORE AGGRESSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL MAY BE HARMFUL. SIMILARLY, FOR BLOOD PRESSURE CONTROL, 2014-2015 RECOMMENDATIONS BY THE GUIDELINE-WRITING GROUPS ENDORSE LESS INTENSIVE AND MORE INDIVIDUALIZED BLOOD PRESSURE TARGETS FOR DIABETES AND CKD THAN IN THE PAST. PERSONS WITH DIABETES AND CKD REQUIRE MULTIDISCIPLINARY MANAGEMENT INVOLVING A COMBINATION OF TREATMENTS AND BEHAVIORAL ADJUSTMENTS TO DELAY PROGRESSION OF CKD AND TO PREVENT THE ASSOCIATED COMPLICATIONS. THE STENO-2 STUDY, A LANDMARK PROSPECTIVE, RANDOMIZED TRIAL IN DENMARK, DEMONSTRATED THAT COMPARED WITH CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT, INTENSIVE MULTIFACTORIAL INTERVENTION LED TO 46% LOWER DEATH RATE, 56% LESS SEVERE ALBUMINURIA, 43% LOWER INCIDENCE OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, AND 47% LOWER INCIDENCE OF AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY DURING THE 13.3-YEAR STUDY PERIOD.	2018	

10  3909  37 LIFE AFTER PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION: REVERSAL OF DIABETIC LESIONS. PURPOSE OF REVIEW: RECIPIENTS OF PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION BEAR THE BURDEN OF CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES, BOTH MICROVASCULAR AND MACROVASCULAR. PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION PROVIDES THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD OF GLYCEMIC AND METABOLIC CONTROL. AS TRANSPLANTATION PROVIDES IMMEDIATE RELIEF FROM ACUTE COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES, THE IMPACT OF A SUCCESSFUL TRANSPLANT ON LONG-TERM COMPLICATIONS IS THE FOCUS OF THIS REVIEW. RECENT FINDINGS: IT IS INCREASINGLY RECOGNIZED THAT A SUCCESSFUL PANCREAS TRANSPLANT MAY SLOW, STABILIZE, OR AMELIORATE THE PROGRESSION OF MACROVASCULAR AND MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES. NEW UNDERSTANDING OF THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS HAS PROVIDED NEW DATA POTENTIALLY USEFUL FOR PROSPECTIVELY STUDYING THE EFFECT OF PANCREAS TRANSPLANT ON CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES. SUMMARY: EARLIER CORRECTION OF DIABETES BY PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION DECREASES CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS. REFINEMENTS IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE TISSUE TARGETS OF DIABETES COMPLICATIONS AND NEW DIAGNOSTIC AND IMAGING TOOLS TO MEASURE THEM MAY PROVE USEFUL IN FURTHER STUDYING THE IMPACT OF PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION ON CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
11  5363  23 RECENT ADVANCES IN DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASES: FROM KIDNEY INJURY TO KIDNEY FIBROSIS. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE AND END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DKD INCLUDES GLOMERULAR HYPERFILTRATION, PROGRESSIVE ALBUMINURIA, DECLINING ESTIMATED GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE, AND, ULTIMATELY, KIDNEY FAILURE. IT IS KNOWN THAT DKD IS ASSOCIATED WITH METABOLIC CHANGES CAUSED BY HYPERGLYCEMIA, RESULTING IN GLOMERULAR HYPERTROPHY, GLOMERULOSCLEROSIS, AND TUBULOINTERSTITIAL INFLAMMATION AND FIBROSIS. HYPERGLYCEMIA IS ALSO KNOWN TO CAUSE PROGRAMMED EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION. HOWEVER, THE DETAILED MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE ONSET AND PROGRESSION OF DKD REMAIN ELUSIVE. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS RECENT ADVANCES REGARDING THE PATHOGENIC MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN DKD.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
12  6648  38 UPDATE ON DIAGNOSIS, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY, AND MANAGEMENT OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS A CHRONIC COMPLICATION OF DIABETES MELLITUS WHICH MAY EVENTUALLY LEAD TO END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE (ESKD). DESPITE IMPROVEMENTS IN GLYCAEMIC CONTROL AND BLOOD PRESSURE MANAGEMENT WITH RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM (RAAS) BLOCKADE, THE CURRENT THERAPY CANNOT COMPLETELY HALT DKD PROGRESSION TO ESKD IN SOME PATIENTS. DKD IS A HETEROGENEOUS DISEASE ENTITY IN TERMS OF ITS CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS, HISTOPATHOLOGY AND THE RATE OF PROGRESSION, WHICH MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO DEVELOP EFFECTIVE THERAPEUTICS. IT WAS FORMERLY CONSIDERED THAT ALBUMINURIA PRECEDED KIDNEY FUNCTION DECLINE IN DKD, BUT RECENT EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES REVEALED THAT A DISTINCT GROUP OF PATIENTS PRESENTED KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION WITHOUT DEVELOPING ALBUMINURIA. OTHER COMORBIDITIES, SUCH AS HYPERTENSION, OBESITY AND GOUT, ALSO AFFECT THE CLINICAL COURSE OF DKD. THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF DKD IS COMPLEX AND MULTIFACTORIAL, INVOLVING BOTH METABOLIC AND HAEMODYNAMIC FACTORS. THESE INDUCE ACTIVATION OF INTRACELLULAR SIGNALLING PATHWAYS, OXIDATIVE STRESS, HYPOXIA, DYSREGULATED AUTOPHAGY AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES, WHICH RESULT IN KIDNEY INFLAMMATION AND FIBROSIS. RECENTLY, TWO GROUPS OF ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS, SODIUM-GLUCOSE COTRANSPORTER 2 (SGLT2) INHIBITORS AND GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 (GLP-1) RECEPTOR AGONISTS, WERE DEMONSTRATED TO PROVIDE RENOPROTECTION ON TOP OF THEIR GLUCOSE-LOWERING EFFECTS. SEVERAL OTHER THERAPEUTIC AGENTS ARE ALSO BEING DEVELOPED AND EVALUATED IN CLINICAL TRIALS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
13  4891  38 OXIDATIVE STRESS AND INFLAMMATORY MARKERS IN PREDIABETES AND DIABETES. PREDIABETES IS A STATE OF ELEVATED PLASMA GLUCOSE IN WHICH THE THRESHOLD FOR DIABETES HAS NOT YET BEEN REACHED AND CAN PREDISPOSE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. INSULIN RESISTANCE AND IMPAIRED BETA-CELL FUNCTION ARE OFTEN ALREADY PRESENT IN PREDIABETES. HYPERGLYCEMIA CAN UPREGULATE MARKERS OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND CONTRIBUTE TO INCREASED REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS) GENERATION, WHICH ULTIMATELY CAUSE VASCULAR DYSFUNCTION. CONVERSELY, INCREASED OXIDATIVE STRESS AND INFLAMMATION CAN LEAD TO INSULIN RESISTANCE AND IMPAIRED INSULIN SECRETION. PROPER TREATMENT OF HYPERGLYCEMIA AND INHIBITION OF ROS OVERPRODUCTION IS CRUCIAL FOR DELAYING ONSET OF DIABETES AND FOR PREVENTION OF CARDIOVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. THUS, IT IS IMPERATIVE TO DETERMINE THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE PROGRESSION FROM PREDIABETES TO DIABETES INCLUDING A CLARIFICATION OF HOW OLD AND NEW MEDICATIONS AFFECT OXIDATIVE AND IMMUNE MECHANISMS OF DIABETES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OXIDATIVE STRESS AND HYPERGLYCEMIA ALONG WITH LINKS BETWEEN INFLAMMATION AND PREDIABETES. ADDITIONALLY, THE EFFECTS OF HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY, MICROVESICLES, MICRO-RNA, AND EPIGENETIC REGULATION ON INFLAMMATION, OXIDATIVE STATE, AND GLYCEMIC CONTROL ARE HIGHLIGHTED. ADIPOSE TISSUE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON CHRONIC INFLAMMATION ARE ALSO BRIEFLY REVIEWED. FINALLY, THE ROLE OF IMMUNE-TARGETED THERAPIES AND ANTI-DIABETIC MEDICATION ON GLYCEMIC CONTROL AND OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE DISCUSSED.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
14  6341  37 THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS IN LATE COMPLICATIONS IN TYPE 1 DIABETES. TYPE 1 DIABETES IS A CHRONIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE IN WHICH THE DESTRUCTION OF PANCREATIC BETA CELLS LEADS TO HYPERGLYCEMIA. THE PREVENTION OF HYPERGLYCEMIA IS VERY IMPORTANT TO AVOID OR AT LEAST POSTPONE THE DEVELOPMENT OF MICRO- AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS, ALSO KNOWN AS LATE COMPLICATIONS. THESE INCLUDE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE, DIABETIC NEUROPATHY, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. THE IMPACT OF LONG-TERM HYPERGLYCEMIA HAS BEEN SHOWN TO PERSIST LONG AFTER THE NORMALIZATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS, A PHENOMENON KNOWN AS METABOLIC MEMORY. IT IS BELIEVED THAT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND MICRORNAS, PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN METABOLIC MEMORY. THE AIM OF THIS REVIEW IS TO ADDRESS THE IMPACT OF LONG-TERM HYPERGLYCEMIA ON EPIGENETIC MARKS IN LATE COMPLICATIONS OF TYPE 1 DIABETES.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
15  4193  42 METABOLIC MEMORY AND DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY: BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS. NEPHROPATHY IS ONE OF THE MOST FREQUENT COMPLICATIONS OF CHRONIC DIABETES. THE MAIN REASON FOR NEPHROPATHY DESPITE BEING HYPERGLYCEMIA, BUT IT PROGRESSES EVEN AFTER GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN DIABETIC PATIENTS. THE EFFECTS OF PRIOR EXPOSURE TO HIGH BLOOD GLUCOSE CONDITIONS DEPEND UPON THE SEVERITY AND DURATION OF THIS EXPOSURE, INDICATING A "METABOLIC MEMORY" PHENOMENON. HYPERGLYCEMIA NOT ONLY INCREASES OXIDATIVE STRESS BUT IS ALSO ALLEGED TO START SEVERAL BIOCHEMICAL ANOMALIES AND ALTER GENE EXPRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS. HIGH GLUCOSE LEVELS INDUCE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS THAT ALTER GENE EXPRESSION WITHOUT CHANGING DNA SEQUENCES. THESE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS HAVE SHOWN TO BE REVERSIBLE AND HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO CEASE ADVERSE EFFECTS IF GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS ACHIEVED FROM INITIATION OF DIABETES. HOWEVER, IF GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS NOT ACHIEVED FOR MONTHS, THESE MODIFICATIONS STAND FIRM TO REVERSALS. THERAPIES AND DRUGS HAVE BEEN IN USE TO PREVENT EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AND OXIDATIVE STRESS, WHICH ALSO HELPED IN AMELIORATING DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. BUT THESE SYNTHETIC DRUGS ARE LOADED WITH SIDE EFFECTS LIKE INCREASED BODY WEIGHT, KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION ETC. SO PHYTOCHEMICALS ARE EMERGING AS ALTERNATIVES AND MANY OF THEM HAVE ALREADY BEEN USED TO TREAT NEPHROPATHY. BUT STILL, THERE IS RIGOROUS NEED TO EVALUATE PHYTOCHEMICALS WHICH CAN REGULATE EPIGENETIC EVENTS AND HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO DECELERATE THE FURTHER PROGRESSION OF THESE LIFE-THREATENING DISEASES. IN THIS REVIEW ARTICLE WE DISCUSS THE POTENTIAL EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS FROM PLANTS THAT CAN ERASE METABOLIC MEMORY AND CAN THUS BE PROTECTIVE AGAINST DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
16  3435  52 HYPERGLYCEMIA AND VASCULAR METABOLIC MEMORY: TRUTH OR FICTION? PREVENTION OF LONG-TERM COMPLICATIONS REMAINS THE MAIN CHALLENGE IN THE TREATMENT OF DIABETES. A STRONG RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLUCOSE CONTROL AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLICATIONS IS APPARENT IN ALL EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES. YET, INTERVENTION TRIALS HAVE YIELDED QUESTIONABLE RESULTS, PARTICULARLY WHEN INTENSIVE TREATMENT WAS INTRODUCED IN PATIENTS WITH LONG-STANDING DIABETES. IT HAS BEEN POSTULATED THAT IN THESE SUBJECTS, PRIOR EXPOSURE TO CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA MAY HAVE GENERATED A NEGATIVE "METABOLIC MEMORY," PREVENTING FULL EXERTION OF THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF ANY SUBSEQUENT IMPROVEMENT OF GLUCOSE CONTROL. THIS PHENOMENON HAS BEEN REPLICATED IN ANIMAL MODELS AND IT RECOGNIZES A MOLECULAR BASIS IN THE ROLE OF OXIDATIVE STRESS, ADVANCED GLYCATION PROCESSES, AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ACCOUNTING FOR SELF-PERPETUATING MODIFICATIONS OF GENE EXPRESSION. CONVERSELY, EARLY INTERVENTION IN BOTH TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES HAS PROVEN THAT GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL REDUCES THE RISK OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF COMPLICATIONS WITH A BENEFICIAL EFFECT THAT EXTENDS WELL BEYOND THE DURATION OF NEAR-NORMOGLYCEMIA. THIS HAS BROUGHT UP THE CONCEPT OF "METABOLIC LEGACY," AN ADVANTAGE HANDED DOWN BY EARLY AND EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF TREATMENTS DESIGNED TO REDUCE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS AS SAFELY AS POSSIBLE ALONG WITH MULTIFACTORIAL INTERVENTION OF ALL CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS. THE EVIDENCE, NATURE, AND CLINICAL IMPLICATION OF THESE CONCEPTS ARE REVIEWED.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
17  4459  47 MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF DIABETIC VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS ARE THE MAJOR CAUSES OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES. MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS INCLUDE RETINOPATHY, NEPHROPATHY AND NEUROPATHY, WHICH ARE LEADING CAUSES OF BLINDNESS, END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE AND VARIOUS PAINFUL NEUROPATHIES; WHEREAS MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS INVOLVE ATHEROSCLEROSIS RELATED DISEASES, SUCH AS CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE, PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE AND STROKE. DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS ARE THE RESULT OF INTERACTIONS AMONG SYSTEMIC METABOLIC CHANGES, SUCH AS HYPERGLYCEMIA, LOCAL TISSUE RESPONSES TO TOXIC METABOLITES FROM GLUCOSE METABOLISM, AND GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC MODULATORS. CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA IS RECOGNIZED AS A MAJOR INITIATOR OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS. MULTIPLE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO MEDIATE HYPERGLYCEMIA'S ADVERSE EFFECTS ON VASCULAR TISSUES. THESE INCLUDE INCREASED POLYOL PATHWAY, ACTIVATION OF THE DIACYLGLYCEROL/PROTEIN KINASE C PATHWAY, INCREASED OXIDATIVE STRESS, OVERPRODUCTION AND ACTION OF ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS, AND INCREASED HEXOSAMINE PATHWAY. IN ADDITION, THE ALTERATIONS OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS INDUCED BY HYPERGLYCEMIA OR TOXIC METABOLITES CAN ALSO LEAD TO CELLULAR DYSFUNCTIONS AND DAMAGE VASCULAR TISSUES BY ALTERING GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN FUNCTION. LESS STUDIED THAN THE TOXIC MECHANISMS, HYPERGLYCEMIA MIGHT ALSO INHIBIT THE ENDOGENOUS VASCULAR PROTECTIVE FACTORS SUCH AS INSULIN, VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR, PLATELET-DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR AND ACTIVATED PROTEIN C, WHICH PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN MAINTAINING VASCULAR HOMEOSTASIS. THUS, EFFECTIVE THERAPIES FOR DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS NEED TO INHIBIT MECHANISMS INDUCED BY HYPERGLYCEMIA'S TOXIC EFFECTS AND ALSO ENHANCE THE ENDOGENOUS PROTECTIVE FACTORS. THE PRESENT REVIEW SUMMARIZES THESE MULTIPLE BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS ACTIVATED BY HYPERGLYCEMIA AND THE POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS THAT MIGHT PREVENT DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS. (J DIABETES INVEST, DOI: 10.1111/J.2040-1124.2010.00018.X, 2010).	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
18  2121  42 EPIGENETIC HISTONE MODIFICATIONS IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD), AS THE MAIN COMPLICATION OF DIABETES MELLITUS, IS THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF THE END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD) AND THE MOST COMMON CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. OVERALL, 30-40% OF PATIENTS WITH TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES EVENTUALLY DEVELOP DKD. ALTHOUGH SOME DIABETES PATIENTS HAVE INTENSIFIED GLYCEMIC CONTROL, THEY STILL DEVELOP DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. CURRENT TREATMENT METHODS CAN ALLEVIATE BUT DO NOT MARKEDLY HALT DISEASE DEVELOPMENT, RESULTING IN RENAL FAILURE AND SEVERE COMPLICATIONS, EVEN CONTRIBUTING TO ELEVATED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY RATES. DKD IS A DISEASE WITH INTERACTIONS OF GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT. EMERGING EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT DKD-ASSOCIATED KEY GENES ARE ALSO REGULATED BY THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISM. RECENTLY, INCREASING RESEARCHES INVOLVING CELLS AND EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS DEMONSTRATED THAT HISTONE POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS CAN MEDIATE GENE EXPRESSION, WHICH CORRELATED WITH DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. NOVEL THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES FOR EPIGENETIC EVENTS COULD BE BENEFICIAL FOR THE EARLY DETECTION AND TREATMENT OF DKD TO PREVENT IT FROM DEVELOPING INTO END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD). IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS PRIOR FINDINGS IN THE FIELD OF HISTONE MODIFICATIONS IN DKD, ESPECIALLY HISTONE ACETYLATION AND HISTONE METHYLATION. WE THEN FOCUS ON RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN HISTONE ACETYLATION AND METHYLATION INVOLVED IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF DKD.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
19  4971  32 PATHOPHYSIOLOGIC MECHANISMS IN DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE: A FOCUS ON CURRENT AND FUTURE THERAPEUTIC TARGETS. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE AROUND THE GLOBE AND IS ONE OF THE MAIN COMPLICATIONS IN PATIENTS WITH TYPE 1 AND 2 DIABETES. THE STANDARD TREATMENT FOR DKD IS DRUGS CONTROLLING HYPERGLYCEMIA AND HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE. RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM BLOCKADE AND SODIUM GLUCOSE COTRANSPORTER 2 (SGLT2) INHIBITION HAVE YIELDED PROMISING RESULTS IN DKD, BUT MANY DIABETIC PATIENTS ON SUCH TREATMENTS NEVERTHELESS CONTINUE TO DEVELOP DKD, LEADING TO KIDNEY FAILURE AND CARDIOVASCULAR COMORBIDITIES. NEW THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS ARE URGENTLY REQUIRED. WE REVIEW HERE THE PROMISING THERAPEUTIC AVENUES BASED ON INSIGHTS INTO THE MECHANISMS OF DKD THAT HAVE RECENTLY EMERGED, INCLUDING MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS, SGLT2 INHIBITORS, GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 RECEPTOR AGONIST, ENDOTHELIN RECEPTOR A INHIBITION, ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, AUTOPHAGY ACTIVATORS AND EPIGENETIC REMODELLING. THE INVOLVEMENT OF SEVERAL MOLECULAR MECHANISMS IN DKD PATHOGENESIS, TOGETHER WITH THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC VARIABILITY OF THIS CONDITION, MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO TARGET THIS HETEROGENEOUS PATIENT POPULATION WITH A SINGLE DRUG. PERSONALIZED MEDICINE, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE GENETIC AND MECHANISTIC VARIABILITY, MAY THEREFORE IMPROVE RENAL AND CARDIOVASCULAR PROTECTION IN DIABETIC PATIENTS WITH DKD.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
20  2009  30 EPIGENETIC BASIS OF DIABETIC VASCULOPATHY. TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS (T2DM) CAUSES PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE BECAUSE OF WHICH SEVERAL BLOOD-BORNE FACTORS, INCLUDING VITAL NUTRIENTS FAIL TO REACH THE AFFECTED TISSUE. TISSUE EPIGENOME IS SENSITIVE TO CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA AND IS KNOWN TO CAUSE PATHOGENESIS OF MICRO- AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. THESE VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF T2DM MAY PERPETUATE THE ONSET OF ORGAN DYSFUNCTION. THE BURDEN OF DIABETES IS PRIMARILY BECAUSE OF A WIDE RANGE OF COMPLICATIONS OF WHICH NONHEALING DIABETIC ULCERS REPRESENT A MAJOR COMPONENT. THUS, IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT CURRENT RESEARCH HELP RECOGNIZE MORE EFFECTIVE METHODS FOR THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF EARLY VASCULAR INJURIES. THIS REVIEW ADDRESSES THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EPIGENETIC PROCESSES SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION AND HISTONE MODIFICATIONS IN THE EVOLUTION OF MACROVASCULAR AND MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF T2DM.	2022