1  4963 241 PATHOGENESIS OF THYROID NODULES: HISTOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION? THYROID NODULE GENESIS MAY BE CONSIDERED AS AN AMPLIFICATION OF THYROID HETEROGENEITY DUE TO GENETIC AND/OR EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. WE CLASSIFIED THE THYROID NODULES IN FIVE TYPES WITH DISTINCT HISTOLOGICAL FEATURES: HYPERPLASTIC, NEOPLASTIC, COLLOID, CYSTIC AND THYROIDITIC NODULES. HYPERPLASTIC: THYROCYTE PROLIFERATION IS UNDER THE CONTROL OF TSH BUT SEVERAL OTHER PARACRINE AND AUTOCRINE FACTORS ARE SECRETED BY FOLLICULAR CELLS, THE STROMAL APPARATUS AND THE LYMPHOCYTES, WHICH ARE IMPLICATED IN INITIATION AND PERPETUATION OF THYROID HYPERPLASIA. GROWTH OCCURS MAINLY THROUGH TSHR, CAMP AND PKA. CONSTITUTIVE CAMP OVERPRODUCTION HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE DUE TO POINT MUTATION OF THE TSHR OR GS PROTEIN, PRODUCING OVERGROWTH AND HYPERFUNCTION. NEOPLASTIC: SEVERAL ACTIVATED ONCOGENES HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED IN THYROID MALIGNANCIES. ONCOGENES RELEVANT TO THE THYROID CARCINOGENESIS ARE: MUTATED TSHR AND GSP (CONSTITUTIVE ACTIVATION OF CAMP); TRK (RECEPTOR FOR NGF); RET/PTC (PHOSPHORYLATION OF TYROSINE KINASE RECEPTOR)--AN ISOFORM OF THIS ONCOGENE IS INDUCED BY RADIATION: RAS (IT ENCODES GS PROTEINS TRANSDUCING MITOGENIC SIGNALS); AND C-MET (RECEPTOR FOR HEPATOCYTE GROWTH FACTOR). THE EVOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIATED THYROID CANCER TOWARDS AN UNDIFFERENTIATED CANCER IS DUE TO A MUTATION OF A FAMILY OF PROTEINS (I.E., P53), WHICH ACTS AS A BRAKE, PREVENTING THE GENOMIC INSTABILITY OF CANCER. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT A TUMOR INITIATES BY RET OR RAS AND POSSIBLY PROGRESSES--AS A RESULT OF ADDITIONAL MUTATIONS AND BY P53 MUTATION--TO ANAPLASTIC CARCINOMA. COLLOID: FLATTENING OF THE EPITHELIUM AND DILATATION OF FOLLICLES CONTAINING VISCOUS MATERIAL--MADE UP BY A CONCENTRATED SOLUTION OF THYROGLOBULIN (HTG)--IS THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE COLLOID NODULE. A DEFECT OF INTRALUMINAL REABSORPTION OF HTG HAS BEEN SUGGESTED BUT NOT PROVEN. EXPERIMENTALLY, A LOAD OF IODINE IS ABLE TO CHANGE THYROID HYPERPLASIA TO A COLLOID FEATURE; HOWEVER, A LOAD OF IODINE IS RARELY FOUND IN THE CLINICAL HISTORY OF PATIENTS. A NEW CLUE TO THE PATHOGENESIS COMES FROM THE FINDING THAT A RELEVANT PART OF THE COLLOID (10-20%) IS MADE UP OF INSOLUBLE GLOBULES, WHERE HTG IS COMPACTED IN A POLYMERIC FORM. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT STOCKING HTG INTO GLOBULES IS DEFECTIVE IN COLLOID NODULES, LEADING TO ENORMOUS ENLARGEMENT OF THE FOLLICLE. CYSTIC: IT IS ESTIMATED THAT BETWEEN 15 AND 40% OF THYROID NODULES ARE PARTLY OR ENTIRELY CYSTIC. THE 'TRUE CYST' IS RARE; MOST OF THE SO-CALLED CYSTIC NODULES ARE 'PSEUDOCYSTS', WHICH FOLLOW NECROSIS AND COLLIQUATION. NECROSIS ISSUES AS AN IMBALANCE BETWEEN GROWTH AND THE PRECISELY REGULATED PROCESS OF ANGIOGENESIS. MORE RECENTLY, THE VEGF/VPF HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE AT THE ORIGIN OF RECENT AND RECURRENT CYSTS. IMMUNOTOXIC AND APOPTOTIC MECHANISMS HAVE ALSO BEEN SUGGESTED. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CYSTIC FLUID SHOWED A 'DENATURED' AND 'SERUM-LIKE' PATTERN SUGGESTING DIFFERENT MECHANISMS IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF THE PSEUDOCYSTIC THYROID NODULES. THYROIDITIC: NODULAR LYMPHOCYTIC THYROIDITIS (NLT) INCLUDES TWO DIFFERENT ENTITIES: 1) LYMPHOCYTE THYROIDITIS GROWING AS A NODULE IN A HYPERPLASTIC OR NORMAL GLAND, AND 2) LYMPHOCYTE THYROIDITIS ASSOCIATED IN THE SAME NODULE WITH OTHER NODULAR DISEASES OF THE THYROID: PAPILLARY THYROID CARCINOMA AND LYMPHOMA HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE ASSOCIATED TO CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC THYROIDITIS.	2001	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
2  6147  36 THE EXPRESSION OF NON-CODING RNAS AND THEIR TARGET MOLECULES IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS: A MOLECULAR BASIS FOR RHEUMATOID PATHOGENESIS AND ITS POTENTIAL CLINICAL APPLICATIONS. RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA) IS A TYPICAL AUTOIMMUNE-MEDIATED RHEUMATIC DISEASE PRESENTING AS A CHRONIC SYNOVITIS IN THE JOINT. THE CHRONIC SYNOVIAL INFLAMMATION IS CHARACTERIZED BY HYPER-VASCULARITY AND EXTRAVASATION OF VARIOUS IMMUNE-RELATED CELLS TO FORM LYMPHOID AGGREGATES WHERE AN INTIMATE CROSS-TALK AMONG INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNE CELLS TAKES PLACE. THESE INTERACTIONS FACILITATE PRODUCTION OF ABUNDANT PROINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES, CHEMOKINES AND GROWTH FACTORS FOR THE PROLIFERATION/MATURATION/DIFFERENTIATION OF B LYMPHOCYTES TO BECOME PLASMA CELLS. FINALLY, THE AUTOANTIBODIES AGAINST DENATURED IMMUNOGLOBULIN G (RHEUMATOID FACTORS), EB VIRUS NUCLEAR ANTIGENS (EBNAS) AND CITRULLINATED PROTEIN (ACPAS) ARE PRODUCED TO TRIGGER THE DEVELOPMENT OF RA. FURTHERMORE, IT IS DOCUMENTED THAT GENE MUTATIONS, ABNORMAL EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF PEPTIDYLARGININE DEIMINASE GENES 2 AND 4 (PADI2 AND PADI4), AND THEREBY THE INDUCED AUTOANTIBODIES AGAINST PAD2 AND PAD4 ARE IMPLICATED IN ACPA PRODUCTION IN RA PATIENTS. THE ABERRANT EXPRESSIONS OF NON-CODING RNAS (NCRNAS) INCLUDING MICRORNAS (MIRS) AND LONG NON-CODING RNAS (LNCRNAS) IN THE IMMUNE SYSTEM UNDOUBTEDLY DERANGE THE MRNA EXPRESSIONS OF CYTOKINES/CHEMOKINES/GROWTH FACTORS. IN THE PRESENT REVIEW, WE WILL DISCUSS IN DETAIL THE EXPRESSION OF THESE NCRNAS AND THEIR TARGET MOLECULES PARTICIPATING IN DEVELOPING RA, AND THE POTENTIAL BIOMARKERS FOR THE DISEASE, ITS DIAGNOSIS, CARDIOVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS AND THERAPEUTIC RESPONSE. FINALLY, WE PROPOSE SOME PROSPECTIVE INVESTIGATIONS FOR UNRAVELING THE CONUNDRUMS OF RHEUMATOID PATHOGENESIS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
3  5159  36 PRE-RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS: PREDISPOSITION AND TRANSITION TO CLINICAL SYNOVITIS. MULTIPLE PROVEN AND POTENTIAL RISK FACTORS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA) HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED, AND REPRESENT INTERACTIONS BETWEEN GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT. PROVEN RISK FACTORS INCLUDE GENETIC INFLUENCES ON THE FUNCTION OF THE INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEMS, SMOKING, ANTI-CITRULLINATED PROTEIN ANTIBODIES (ACPAS), AND RHEUMATOID FACTORS (RF). POTENTIAL RISK FACTORS INCLUDE EPIGENETIC CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION, THE MICROBIOME AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS, CYTOKINES, AND FC RECEPTORS. PRECLINICAL ABNORMALITIES SUCH AS CIRCULATING RF AND ACPAS MAY OCCUR MORE THAN 10 YEARS PRIOR TO THE ONSET OF CLINICAL DISEASE. HOWEVER, THE PRECISE MECHANISMS WHEREBY THESE RISK FACTORS LEAD TO CLINICAL DISEASE REMAIN UNCLEAR. IT IS POSSIBLE THAT, COMBINED WITH ACTIVATION OF THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM, A SUBSET OF ACPAS INITIATES THE DISEASE IN THE CARTILAGE OR SYNOVIUM AFTER BINDING TO ENDOGENOUS CITRULLINATED PROTEINS. SUBSEQUENT ENGAGEMENT OF FC RECEPTORS AND COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION WOULD LEAD TO SECONDARY INFLAMMATION IN THE SYNOVIUM WITH INDUCTION OF A PERPETUATING CYCLE OF CHRONIC SYNOVITIS.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
4  1033  31 CITRULLINATION OF AUTOANTIGENS IMPLICATES NETOSIS IN THE INDUCTION OF AUTOIMMUNITY. TOLERANCE BLOCKS THE EXPRESSION OF AUTOANTIBODIES, WHEREAS AUTOIMMUNITY PROMOTES IT. HOW TOLERANCE BREAKS AND AUTOANTIBODY PRODUCTION BEGINS THUS ARE CRUCIAL QUESTIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING AND TREATMENT OF AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES. EVIDENCE IMPLICATES CELL DEATH AND AUTOANTIGEN MODIFICATIONS IN THE INITIATION OF AUTOIMMUNE REACTIONS. ONE FORM OF NEUTROPHIL CELL DEATH CALLED NETOSIS DESERVES ATTENTION BECAUSE IT REQUIRES THE POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION OF HISTONES AND RESULTS IN THE EXTRACELLULAR RELEASE OF CHROMATIN. NETOSIS RECEIVED ITS NAME FROM NET, THE ACRONYM GIVEN TO NEUTROPHIL EXTRACELLULAR TRAP. THE EXTRACELLULAR CHROMATIN INCORPORATES HISTONES IN WHICH ARGININES HAVE BEEN CONVERTED TO CITRULLINES BY PEPTIDYLARGININE DEIMINASE IV (PAD4). THE DEIMINATED CHROMATIN MAY FUNCTION TO CAPTURE OR 'TRAP' BACTERIAL PATHOGENS, THUS GENERATING AN EXTRACELLULAR COMPLEX OF DEIMINATED HISTONES AND BACTERIAL CELL ADJUVANTS. THE COMPLEX OF BACTERIAL ANTIGENS AND DEIMINATED CHROMATIN MAY BE INTERNALISED BY HOST PHAGOCYTES DURING ACUTE INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS, AS ARISE DURING BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OR CHRONIC AUTOINFLAMMATORY DISORDERS. THE UPTAKE AND PROCESSING OF DEIMINATED CHROMATIN TOGETHER WITH BACTERIAL ADJUVANTS BY PHAGOCYTES MAY INDUCE THE PRESENTATION OF MODIFIED HISTONE EPITOPES AND CO-STIMULATION, THUS YIELDING A POWERFUL STIMULUS TO BREAK TOLERANCE. AUTOANTIBODIES TO DEIMINATED HISTONES ARE PREVALENT IN FELTY'S SYNDROME PATIENTS AND ARE PRESENT IN SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) AND PATIENTS WITH RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA). THESE OBSERVATIONS CLEARLY IMPLICATE HISTONE DEIMINATION AS AN EPIGENETIC MARK THAT CAN ACT AS AN AUTOANTIBODY STIMULANT.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
5  3934  65 LIVER TUMOR INDUCTION. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF NODULAR LIVER LESIONS IN RODENTS FOLLOWING THE ADMINISTRATION OF TEST AGENTS RAISES SEVERAL QUESTIONS WHICH COULD BE PLACED IN ONE OF TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES: DIAGNOSTIC AND INTERPRETATIONAL. FROM A DIAGNOSTIC POINT OF VIEW, THE PROPER CLASSIFICATION OF LIVER TUMORS INTO A BENIGN AND MALIGNANT CATEGORY HAS TO BE BASED ON THE DIRECT CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MORPHOLOGY AND THE BIOLOGIC BEHAVIOR OF THE LESIONS. THEREFORE, EXTREME CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO SEPARATE THE MALIGNANT TUMORS FROM THE BENIGN AND THE BENIGN NEOPLASIA FROM THE HYPERPLASIA. THE SUBSTITUTION OF THE TERM "NEOPLASTIC NODULE" FOR HYPERPLASTIC NODULE IN RATS IS MISLEADING. MOST OF THESE NODULES, WHEN INDUCED UNDER SPECIAL EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS, MAY REGRESS OR REMODEL AND THUS THEY ARE NOT NEOPLASTIC IN NATURE. CHRONIC CARCINOGENICITY BIOASSAYS SHOULD INCLUDE "STOP" TYPE OF TREATMENT LEAVING ENOUGH OF THE OBSERVATIONAL TIME TO ESTABLISH THE FATE OF INDUCED NODULAR LESIONS. THE INDUCTION OF HISTOCHEMICALLY CHANGED FOCI CAN SERVE ONLY AS AN INDICATION OF POTENTIAL HEPATOCARCINOGENICITY AND SHOULD NOT BE EQUATED WITH THE INDUCTION OF BONA FIDE CANCER. THE BIOLOGIC INTERPRETATION OF NODULAR LIVER LESIONS, ESPECIALLY IN MICE, NEEDS FURTHER SCRUTINY BECAUSE THESE LESIONS HAVE A TENDENCY TO DEVELOP SPONTANEOUSLY WITH HIGH INCIDENCE IN SOME STRAINS. THIS CHARACTERISTIC THEN RAISES THE QUESTION AS TO THE MECHANISM BY WHICH VARIOUS AGENTS AUGMENT AND/OR ACCELERATE THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUCH TUMORS. IS THIS ACTION PRIMARILY PROMOTING OR INITIATING IN NATURE OR DOES IT REPRESENT THE INDUCTION OF TUMORS DE NOVO? THE ANSWER TO THIS DILEMMA MAY HAVE A DECISIVE BEARING ON CARCINOGENIC RISK ASSESSMENT AND THE TYPE OF REGULATORY ACTION, SINCE THE PROMOTING AGENTS POSSESS A THRESHOLD EFFECT AND THE PROMOTED CHANGES MAY REGRESS FOLLOWING WITHDRAWAL OF TREATMENT. THE INTERPRETATION OF HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS FURTHER COMPLICATED BY THE FACT THAT SEVERAL FACTORS, SUCH AS SEX HORMONAL ENVIRONMENT, INCREASED MITOTIC ACTIVITY FOLLOWING AN EXCESSIVE LOSS OF PARENCHYMAL CELLS, DEGREE OF CALORIC INTAKE, ENZYMATIC COMPLEMENT, AND ANIMALS' AGE AT THE TIME OF THE EXPOSURE TO A TEST AGENT, MAY INFLUENCE THE OUTCOME OF LIVER TUMOR DEVELOPMENT BY MODULATING "INITIATION" AND/OR "PROMOTION" OF CARCINOGENESIS. BROAD FLUCTUATION IN THE HISTORIC INCIDENCE OF LIVER TUMORS FURTHER COMPOUNDS THE COMPLEXITY OF THE PROPER BIOASSAY INTERPRETATION. THE SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED EXPERIMENTS MAY HAVE THE OBJECTIVE TO EXPLORE PREDOMINANTLY THE INITIATING OR PROMOTING EFFECTS OF THE AGENT. SUCH PROTOCOLS SHOULD BE USED WHENEVER NECESSARY TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THESE TWO MECHANISMS OF ACTION. IN THE CAUCASIANS, THE "SPONTANEOUS" DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIMARY HEPATOCELLULAR TUMORS IS RARE. THE MAJORITY OF THESE TUMORS ARE MALIGNANT AND RAPIDLY FATAL. ACCORDING TO SOME HUMAN PATHOLOGISTS, THE BENIGN VARIETY OF LIVER TUMORS IS RARE AND IT DOES NOT REPRESENT NECESSARILY A PREMALIGNANT STAGE IN TUMOR DEVELOPMENT. CARCINOMA OF THE LIVER MAY OCCUR IN INFANCY, ESPECIALLY IN MALES BEFORE THE AGE OF 2 YEARS. THIS SUGGESTS A GENETIC CAUSATION OR CARCINOGENIC EXPOSURE IN UTERO. ONE OF THE GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS WHICH SIGNIFICANTLY ENHANCES THE INCIDENCE OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA IN HUMANS IS EXPOSURE TO AFLATOXIN B(1) WHICH IS APPARENTLY POTENTIATED BY CONCURRENT LIVER CIRRHOSIS. BECAUSE MANY MORE AGENTS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE HEPATOCARCINOGENIC IN MICE AND RATS THAN IN MEN, A QUESTION ARISES AS TO THE DIRECT RELEVANCE OF RODENT STUDIES TO HUMANS. A BALANCED ASSESSMENT OF THE CARCINOGENICITY OF THE AGENT COULD ONLY BE REACHED IN CONSIDERING BOTH THE PHARMACOKINETICS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MALIGNANT NEOPLASIA IN OTHER ORGANS. IN THE CASE OF POSITIVE CARCINOGENICITY ASSESSMENT, THE OUTCOME OF THE MUTAGENICITY BIOASSAYS CAN SUGGEST GENIC (GENOTOXIC) OR PARAGENIC (EPIGENETIC) MODE OF ACTION IN MAMMALIAN SYSTEMS.	1982	

6  3694  56 INFLAMMATORY COMPONENTS OF THE THYROID CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT: AN AVENUE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF NOVEL BIOMARKERS. THE INCIDENCE OF THYROID CANCER IN THE UNITED STATES IS ON THE RISE WITH AN APPRECIABLY HIGH DISEASE RECURRENCE RATE OF 20-30%. ANAPLASTIC THYROID CANCER (ATC), ALTHOUGH RARE IN OCCURRENCE, IS AN AGGRESSIVE FORM OF CANCER WITH LIMITED TREATMENT OPTIONS AND BLEAK CURE RATES. THIS CHAPTER USES DISCUSSIONS OF IN VITRO MODELS THAT ARE REPRESENTATIVE OF PAPILLARY, ANAPLASTIC, AND FOLLICULAR THYROID CANCER TO EVALUATE THE CROSSTALK BETWEEN SPECIFIC CELLS OF THE TUMOR MICROENVIRONMENT (TME), WHICH SERVES AS A HIGHLY HETEROGENEOUS REALM OF SIGNALING CASCADES AND METABOLISM THAT ARE ASSOCIATED WITH TUMORIGENESIS. THE CELLULAR CONSTITUENTS OF THE TME CARRY OUT VARYING CHARACTERISTIC IMMUNOMODULATORY FUNCTIONS THAT ARE DISCUSSED THROUGHOUT THIS CHAPTER. THE AFOREMENTIONED CELL TYPES INCLUDE CANCER-ASSOCIATED FIBROBLASTS (CAFS), ENDOTHELIAL CELLS (ECS), AND CANCER STEM CELLS (CSCS), AS WELL AS SPECIFIC IMMUNE CELLS, INCLUDING NATURAL KILLER (NK) CELLS, DENDRITIC CELLS (DCS), MAST CELLS, T REGULATORY (TREG) CELLS, CD8+ T CELLS, AND TUMOR-ASSOCIATED MACROPHAGES (TAMS). TAM-MEDIATED INFLAMMATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH A POOR PROGNOSIS OF THYROID CANCER, AND THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF THE CELLULAR CROSSTALK BETWEEN MACROPHAGES AND THYROID CANCER CELLS WITH RESPECT TO INDUCING A METASTATIC PHENOTYPE IS NOT YET KNOWN. THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL TRANSITION TO PATHOLOGICAL METASTATIC PHENOTYPES WHEN ESTABLISHING THE TME ENCOMPASSES A WIDE RANGE OF CHARACTERISTICS THAT ARE FURTHER EXPLORED WITHIN THIS CHAPTER, INCLUDING THE ROLES OF SOMATIC MUTATIONS AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS THAT DRIVE THE GENETIC HETEROGENEITY OF CANCER CELLS, ALLOWING FOR SELECTIVE ADVANTAGES THAT AID IN THEIR PROLIFERATION. INDUCTION OF THESE PROLIFERATING CELLS IS TYPICALLY ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH INFLAMMATORY INDUCTION, WHEREBY CHRONIC INFLAMMATION SETS UP A CONSTANT PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE OF INFLAMMATORY CELL RECRUITMENT. THE SECRETIONS OF THESE INFLAMMATORY CELLS CAN ALTER THE GENETIC MAKEUP OF PROLIFERATING CELLS, WHICH CAN IN TURN, PROMOTE TUMOR GROWTH.THIS CHAPTER ALSO PRESENTS AN IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS WITHIN THE TME, INCLUDING SECRETORY CYTOKINES AND EXOSOMES. SINCE THE EXOSOMAL CARGO OF A CELL IS A REFLECTION AND FINGERPRINT OF THE ORIGINATING PARENTAL CELLS, THE PROFILING OF EXOSOMAL MIRNA DERIVED FROM THYROID CANCER CELLS AND MACROPHAGES IN THE TME MAY SERVE AS AN IMPORTANT STEP IN BIOMARKER DISCOVERY. IDENTIFICATION OF A DISTINCT SET OF TUMOR SUPPRESSIVE MIRNAS DOWNREGULATED IN ATC-SECRETED EXOSOMES INDICATES THEIR ROLE IN THE REGULATION OF TUMOR SUPPRESSIVE GENES THAT MAY INCREASE THE METASTATIC PROPENSITY OF ATC. ADDITIONALLY, THE HIGH EXPRESSION OF PRO-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES IN STUDIES LOOKING AT THYROID CANCER AND ACTIVATED MACROPHAGE CONDITIONED MEDIA SUGGESTS THE EXISTENCE OF AN INFLAMMATORY TME IN THYROID CANCER. NEW FINDINGS ARE SUGGESTIVE OF THE PRESENCE OF A METASTATIC NICHE IN ATC TISSUES THAT IS INFLUENCED BY THYROID TUMOR MICROENVIRONMENT SECRETOME-INDUCED EPITHELIAL TO MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION (EMT), MEDIATED BY A RECIPROCAL INTERACTION BETWEEN THE PRO-INFLAMMATORY M1 MACROPHAGES AND THE THYROID CANCER CELLS. THUS, TARGETING THE METASTATIC THYROID CARCINOMA MICROENVIRONMENT COULD OFFER POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC BENEFITS AND SHOULD BE EXPLORED FURTHER IN PRECLINICAL AND TRANSLATIONAL MODELS OF HUMAN METASTATIC THYROID CANCER.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
7  1481  43 DIVERSITY OF GENOME PROFILES IN MALIGNANT LYMPHOMA. CHARACTERISTIC CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATIONS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC DISEASE ENTITIES, AND ARE KNOWN TO PLAY A PIVOTAL ROLE IN LYMPHOMA DEVELOPMENT. CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATION ALONE, HOWEVER, IS NOT SUFFICIENT TO PRODUCE TUMORS. FACTORS INCLUDING THE MICROENVIRONMENT AND EPIGENETIC AND GENETIC ALTERATIONS OTHER THAN CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATIONS HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO PLAY A ROLE IN LYMPHOMA DEVELOPMENT. FOLLICULAR LYMPHOMA CELLS PROLIFERATE IN CLOSE CONTACT WITH FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS. MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE (MALT) LYMPHOMA CELLS PROLIFERATE AT THE MARGINAL ZONE AREA OF REACTIVE FOLLICLES WHICH ARE FORMED BY PRECEDING CHRONIC INFLAMMATION. THE IMPORTANCE OF GENETIC ALTERATIONS OTHER THAN CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATION HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED SINCE THE INTRODUCTION OF ARRAY COMPARATIVE GENOMIC HYBRIDIZATION (ARRAY CGH). VARIATIONS IN THE GENOMIC PROFILE AMONG PATIENTS WITH THE SAME DISEASE ENTITY HAVE BEEN FOUND BY ARRAY CGH ANALYSES. THESE VARIATIONS INDICATE THAT MULTIPLE GENETIC PATHWAYS LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF LYMPHOMAS MAY EXIST AND HENCE RESULT IN THE VARIABLE CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL FEATURES OBSERVED.	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
8   740  55 CANCER/TESTIS ANTIGENS: EXPRESSION, REGULATION, TUMOR INVASION, AND USE IN IMMUNOTHERAPY OF CANCERS. CANCER/TESTIS ANTIGENS (CTAS) ARE NAMED BASED ON THEIR EXPRESSION PATTERN THAT IS RESTRICTED IN A NUMBER OF NORMAL AND ABNORMAL TISSUES. TUMOR CELLS FREQUENTLY EXPRESS ANTIGENS WHOSE EXPRESSION IS TYPICALLY RESTRICTED TO GERM CELLS. THEIR UNIQUE EXPRESSION PATTERN IS GUARANTEED BY PRECISE EPIGENETIC REGULATORY MECHANISMS. BECAUSE OF THEIR TUMOR-LIMITED, HIGH IMMUNOGENICITY, AND BIASED EXPRESSION, DISCOVERY OF THESE MOLECULES PROVIDES UNPRECEDENTED OPPORTUNITIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH AND CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIELD OF CANCER DIAGNOSIS AND IMMUNOTHERAPY. EVOLVING EVIDENCE REVEALS THAT A NUMBER OF CTAS STIMULATE EPITHELIAL MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION (EMT) AND GENERATION OF CANCER STEM-LIKE CELLS, INTENSIFYING METASTASIS, INVASION, AND TUMORIGENESIS. BASED ON THESE FEATURES, CTAS ATTRACT ATTENTION TO BE CONSIDERED AS IDEAL TARGETS FOR DEVELOPING SEVERAL CLINICAL TRIALS, MANY OF THEM CONCENTRATING ON CTA VACCINE THERAPY. ACCORDING TO RECENT PRACTICAL CLINICAL INTEREST, MORE CHARACTERIZATIONS OF CTA REGULATION ARE IDENTIFIED. CTA EXPRESSION HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED IN A VARIETY OF HUMAN CANCER TISSUES, AND SOME OF THEM HAVE BEEN FOUND TO ELICIT HUMORAL AND/OR CELLULAR IMMUNE RESPONSES IN CANCER PATIENTS. CTAS ARE BRILLIANT TARGETS FOR ANTICANCER DRUG DISCOVERY, TARGETED TUMOR THERAPY, AND DIAGNOSTIC BIOMARKERS, FURTHERMORE, VALUED GENES IN THE STUDY OF IMMUNOTHERAPY, PROMOTING TUMORIGENESIS, AND MALIGNANT PROGRESSION. THIS REVIEW OUTLINES AND CATEGORIZES OUR CURRENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPLEX AND BIASED PROCESS OF CTAS MRNA AND PROTEIN EXPRESSION IN CANCER, AND SUPPLIES THE MOST RECENT INFORMATION ON THEIR REGULATION AND FUNCTION. BESIDES, A CONCISE SYNOPSIS OF THE MAJOR CLINICAL TRIALS INVOLVING CTAS, AS THERAPEUTIC AVENUES, IS DISCUSSED. ABBREVIATIONS: AIRE: AUTOIMMUNE REGULATOR; CAMP: CYCLIC ADENOSINE 3',5'-CYCLIC MONOPHOSPHATE; CEA: CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; CML: CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKEMIA; CREB: CYCLICAMP RESPONSE ELEMENT BINDING; CSCS: CANCER STEM CELLS; CTAS: CANCER/TESTIS ANTIGENS; CTL: CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE; DCS: DENDRITIC CELLS; EMT: EPITHELIAL-MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION; ERK: EXTRACELLULAR SIGNAL-REGULATED KINASE; ESCC: ESOPHAGEAL SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; ETS: E26 TRANSFORMATION-SPECIFIC; HIS: HISTIDINE; HLA: HUMAN LEUKOCYTE ANTIGEN; HNSCC: HEAD AND NECK SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; IFN-GAMMA: INTERFERON-GAMMA; IHC: IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; IL-7: INTERLEUKIN7; MHC: MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX; MMP2: MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE 2; MTECS: MEDULLARY THYMUS EPITHELIAL CELLS; MUC1: MUCIN 1; NSCLC: NON-SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER; PRAME: PREFERENTIALLY EXPRESSED ANTIGEN IN MELANOMA; RDA: REPRESENTATIONAL DIFFERENCE ANALYSIS; SEREX: SEROLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CDNA EXPRESSION; SSX: SYNOVIAL SARCOMA X CHROMOSOME; TAAS: TUMOR-ASSOCIATED ANTIGENS; TCR: T-CELL RECEPTOR; TCGA: THE CANCER GENOME ATLAS; TGF-BETA: TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR-BETA.	2016	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
9   940  47 CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA AND MANTLE CELL LYMPHOMA: CROSSROADS OF GENETIC AND MICROENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS. CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA (CLL) AND MANTLE CELL LYMPHOMA (MCL) ARE 2 WELL-DEFINED ENTITIES THAT DIVERGE IN THEIR BASIC PATHOGENIC MECHANISMS AND CLINICAL EVOLUTION BUT THEY SHARE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS, CELLS OF ORIGIN, MOLECULAR ALTERATIONS, AND CLINICAL FEATURES THAT DIFFER FROM OTHER LYMPHOID NEOPLASMS. CLL AND MCL ARE CLASSICALLY CONSIDERED INDOLENT AND AGGRESSIVE NEOPLASMS, RESPECTIVELY. HOWEVER, THE CLINICAL EVOLUTION OF BOTH TUMORS IS VERY HETEROGENEOUS, WITH SUBSETS OF PATIENTS HAVING STABLE DISEASE FOR A LONG TIME WHEREAS OTHERS REQUIRE IMMEDIATE INTERVENTION. BOTH CLL AND MCL INCLUDE 2 MAJOR MOLECULAR SUBTYPES THAT SEEM TO DERIVE FROM ANTIGEN-EXPERIENCED CD5(+) B CELLS THAT RETAIN A NAIVE OR MEMORY-LIKE EPIGENETIC SIGNATURE AND CARRY A VARIABLE LOAD OF IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY-CHAIN VARIABLE REGION SOMATIC MUTATIONS FROM TRULY UNMUTATED TO HIGHLY MUTATED, RESPECTIVELY. THESE 2 SUBTYPES OF TUMORS DIFFER IN THEIR MOLECULAR PATHWAYS, GENOMIC ALTERATIONS, AND CLINICAL BEHAVIOR, BEING MORE AGGRESSIVE IN NAIVE-LIKE THAN MEMORY-LIKE-DERIVED TUMORS IN BOTH CLL AND MCL. THE PATHOGENESIS OF THE 2 ENTITIES INTEGRATES THE RELEVANT INFLUENCE OF B-CELL RECEPTOR SIGNALING, TUMOR CELL MICROENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS, GENOMIC ALTERATIONS, AND EPIGENOME MODIFICATIONS THAT CONFIGURE THE EVOLUTION OF THE TUMORS AND OFFER NEW POSSIBILITIES FOR THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION. THIS REVIEW WILL FOCUS ON THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF THESE 2 TUMORS BASED ON RECENT STUDIES THAT ARE ENHANCING THE UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR PATHOGENESIS AND CREATING SOLID BASES FOR NEW MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
10  1107  38 COMBINING CYTOGENETIC AND EPIGENETIC APPROACHES IN CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA IMPROVES PROGNOSIS PREDICTION FOR PATIENTS WITH ISOLATED 13Q DELETION. BACKGROUND: BOTH DEFECTIVE DNA METHYLATION AND ACTIVE DNA DEMETHYLATION PROCESSES ARE EMERGING AS IMPORTANT RISK FACTORS IN CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA (CLL). HOWEVER, ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN 5-CYTOSINE EPIGENETIC MARKERS AND THE MOST FREQUENT CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES DETECTED IN CLL REMAIN TO BE ESTABLISHED. METHODS: CLL PATIENTS WERE RETROSPECTIVELY CLASSIFIED INTO A CYTOGENETIC LOW-RISK GROUP (ISOLATED 13Q DELETION), AN INTERMEDIATE-RISK GROUP (NORMAL KARYOTYPE OR TRISOMY 12), AND A HIGH-RISK GROUP (11Q DELETION, 17P DELETION, OR COMPLEX KARYOTYPE [>/= 3 BREAKPOINTS]). THE TWO 5-CYTOSINE DERIVATIVES, 5-METHYLCYTOSINE (5-MCYT) AND 5-HYDROXYMETHYLCYTOSINE (5-HMCYT), WERE TESTED BY ELISA (N = 60), WHILE REAL-TIME QUANTITATIVE PCR WAS USED FOR DETERMINING TRANSCRIPTIONAL EXPRESSION LEVELS OF DNMT AND TET (N = 24). RESULTS: BY USING GLOBAL DNA METHYLATION/DEMETHYLATION LEVELS, IN THE LOW-RISK DISEASE GROUP, TWO SUBGROUPS WITH SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT CLINICAL OUTCOMES HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED (MEDIAN TREATMENT-FREE SURVIVAL [TFS] 45 VERSUS > 120 MONTHS FOR 5-MCYT, P = 0.0008, AND 63 VERSUS > 120 MONTHS FOR 5-HMCYT, P = 0.04). A DEFECTIVE 5-MCYT STATUS WAS FURTHER ASSOCIATED WITH A HIGHER PERCENTAGE OF 13Q DELETED NUCLEI (> 80%), THUS SUGGESTING AN ACQUIRED PROCESS. WHEN CONSIDERING THE CYTOGENETIC INTERMEDIATE/HIGH-RISK DISEASE GROUPS, AN ASSOCIATION OF 5-MCYT STATUS WITH LYMPHOCYTOSIS (P = 0.0008) AND THE LYMPHOCYTE DOUBLING TIME (P = 0.04) BUT NOT WITH TFS WAS OBSERVED, AS WELL AS A REDUCTION OF DNMT3A, TET1, AND TET2 TRANSCRIPTS. CONCLUSIONS: COMBINING CYTOGENETIC STUDIES WITH 5-MCYT ASSESSMENT ADDS ACCURACY TO CLL PATIENTS' PROGNOSES AND PARTICULARLY FOR THOSE WITH 13Q DELETION AS A SOLE CYTOGENETIC ABNORMALITY.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
11  5462  34 RESEARCH PROGRESS ON EPIGENETICS OF SMALL B-CELL LYMPHOMA. SMALL B-CELL LYMPHOMA IS THE CLASSIFICATION OF B-CELL CHRONIC LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE DISORDERS THAT INCLUDE CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKAEMIA/SMALL LYMPHOCYTIC LYMPHOMA, FOLLICULAR LYMPHOMA, MANTLE CELL LYMPHOMA, MARGINAL ZONE LYMPHOMA, LYMPHOPLASMACYTIC LYMPHOMA/WALDENSTROM MACROGLOBULINEMIA. THE CLINICAL PRESENTATION IS SOMEWHAT HETEROGENEOUS, AND ITS OCCURRENCE AND DEVELOPMENT MECHANISMS ARE NOT YET PRECISE AND MAY INVOLVE EPIGENETIC CHANGES. EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS MAINLY INCLUDE DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, AND NON-CODING RNA, WHICH ARE ESSENTIAL FOR GENETIC DETECTION, EARLY DIAGNOSIS, AND ASSESSMENT OF TREATMENT RESISTANCE IN SMALL B-CELL LYMPHOMA. AS CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA/SMALL LYMPHOCYTIC LYMPHOMA HAS ALREADY BEEN REPORTED IN THE LITERATURE, THIS ARTICLE FOCUSES ON SMALL B-CELL LYMPHOMAS SUCH AS FOLLICULAR LYMPHOMA, MANTLE CELL LYMPHOMA, MARGINAL ZONE LYMPHOMA, AND WALDENSTROM MACROGLOBULINEMIA. IT DISCUSSES RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN EPIGENETIC RESEARCH TO DIAGNOSE AND TREAT THIS GROUP OF LYMPHOMAS. THIS REVIEW PROVIDES NEW IDEAS FOR THE TREATMENT AND PROGNOSIS ASSESSMENT OF SMALL B-CELL LYMPHOMA BY EXPLORING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SMALL B-CELL LYMPHOMA AND EPIGENETICS.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
12  5338  43 QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION OF RASSF1A METHYLATION IN THE NON-LESIONAL, REGENERATIVE AND NEOPLASTIC LIVER. BACKGROUND: EPIGENETIC CHANGES DURING AGEING AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH CANCER ARE UNDER THE FOCUS OF INTENSE RESEARCH. RASSF1A AND NORE1A ARE NOVEL GENES ACTING IN CONCERT IN THE PROAPOPTOTIC PATHWAY OF THE RAS SIGNALLING. WHILE NORE1A HAS NOT BEEN PREVIOUSLY INVESTIGATED IN THE HUMAN LIVER, RECENT REPORTS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT RASSF1A IS FREQUENTLY EPIGENETICALLY METHYLATED NOT ONLY IN HCC BUT ALSO IN THE CIRRHOTIC LIVER. METHODS: TO ADDRESS WHETHER EPIGENETIC CHANGES TAKE PLACE IN CONNECTION TO AGE AND/OR TO THE UNDERLYING DISEASE, WE INVESTIGATED RASSF1A AND NORE1A GENE PROMOTER METHYLATION BY CONVENTIONAL METHYLATION SPECIFIC PCR AND REAL-TIME MSP IN A SERIES OF HEPATITIC AND NON-HEPATITIC LIVERS HARBORING REGENERATIVE/HYPERPLASTIC (CIRRHOSIS/FOCAL NODULAR HYPERPLASIA), DYSPLASTIC (LARGE REGENERATIVE, LOW AND HIGH GRADE DYSPLASTIC NODULES) AND NEOPLASTIC (HEPATOCELLULAR ADENOMA AND CARCINOMA) GROWTHS. RESULTS: IN THE HEPATITIC LIVER (CHRONIC HEPATITIC/CIRRHOSIS, HEPATOCELLULAR NODULES AND HCC) WE FOUND WIDESPREAD RASSF1A GENE PROMOTER METHYLATION WITH A METHYLATION INDEX THAT INCREASED FROM REGENERATIVE CONDITIONS (CIRRHOSIS) TO HEPATOCELLULAR NODULES (P < 0.01) TO HCC (P < 0.001). IN THE NON-HEPATITIC LIVER A CONSISTENT PATTERN OF GENE METHYLATION WAS ALSO FOUND IN BOTH LESIONAL (FOCAL NODULAR HYPERPLASIA AND HEPATOCELLULAR ADENOMA) AND NON-LESIONAL TISSUE. SPECIFICALLY, HEPATOCELLULAR ADENOMAS (HA) SHOWED A METHYLATION INDEX SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THAT DETECTED IN FOCAL NODULAR HYPERPLASIA (FNH) (P < 0.01) AND IN NON-LESIONAL TISSUE (P < 0.001). IN NON-LESIONAL LIVER ALSO THE METHYLATION INDEX GRADUALLY INCREASED BY AGEING (P = 0.002), SUGGESTING A PROGRESSIVE SPREADING OF METHYLATED CELLS OVER TIME. AS OPPOSED TO RASSF1A GENE PROMOTER METHYLATION, NORE1A GENE WAS NEVER FOUND EPIGENETICALLY ALTERATED IN BOTH HEPATITIC AND NON-HEPATITIC LIVER. CONCLUSION: WE HAVE SHOWN THAT IN NON-LESIONAL, REGENERATIVE AND NEOPLASTIC LIVER THE RASSF1A GENE IS INCREASINGLY METHYLATED, THAT THIS CONDITION TAKES PLACE AS AN AGE-RELATED PHENOMENON AND THAT THE EARLY SETTING AND SPREADING OVER TIME OF AN EPIGENETICALLY METHYLATED HEPATOCYTE SUBPOPULATION, MIGHT BE RELATED TO LIVER TUMORIGENESIS.	2006	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
13  3737  44 INNATE IMMUNITY, EPIGENETICS AND AUTOIMMUNITY IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS. RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA) IS A CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE CHARACTERIZED BY THE PROGRESSIVE AND IRREVERSIBLE DESTRUCTION OF JOINTS. RA REMAINS AN INCURABLE CONDITION, ALTHOUGH A NEW CLASS OF DRUGS, BIOLOGICALS, HAVE MADE A MAJOR BREAKTHROUGH IN TARGETING AND/OR ELIMINATING THE IMMUNE CELLS, INCLUDING T CELLS, B CELLS AND MONOCYTES/MACROPHAGES FROM THE JOINTS. THAT WE CANNOT (YET?) CURE THE DISEASE IS MOST LIKELY DUE TO THE LACK OF THERAPEUTIC TARGETING THE ENDOGENOUSLY ACTIVATED RA SYNOVIAL FIBROBLASTS (RASF). MOST INTERESTINGLY, RASF EXPRESS TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS (TLRS) 1-6 RENDERING THEM PRONE TO ACTIVATION BY EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS TLR LIGANDS AND RESULTING IN THE PRODUCTION OF NUMEROUS POWERFUL CHEMOKINES AND CYTOKINES. THESE FACTORS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE REPOPULATION OF IMMUNE CELLS IN THE JOINTS AFTER CEASING CELL DEPLETING THERAPIES. TO CHARACTERIZE THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF SYNOVIAL ACTIVATION, A NEW APPROACH STUDYING THE EPIGENETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RASF HAS BEEN RECENTLY UNDERTAKEN. THEREBY, THE PATTERN OF HISTONE ACETYLATION, DNA METHYLATION AND GENE EXPRESSION REGULATING MICRORNA ARE BEING EXPLORED. SINCE AUTO-ANTIBODIES HAVE THE MOST PREDICTIVE AND DIAGNOSTIC VALUE FOR RA, IT IS CHALLENGING TO STUDY MORE COMPREHENSIVELY THE CONTRIBUTION OF AUTO-ANTIBODIES TO THE DISEASE. A NEW SCREENING TECHNIQUE, SEROLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF RECOMBINANT HUMAN CDNA EXPRESSION LIBRARY (SEREX), ADAPTED FROM CANCER RESEARCH ALLOWED FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF NOVEL AUTO-ANTIBODIES IN RA, INCLUDING ANTI-SERPIN E2 AUTO-ANTIBODIES. THE SERPIN E2 AUTO-ANTIBODIES WERE FOUND TO INHIBIT THE ACTIVITY OF SERPIN E2 AND HAVE POTENTIALLY A FUNCTIONAL ROLE IN THE DISEASE. THE RECENT FINDINGS IN THE FIELD OF INNATE IMMUNITY, EPIGENETICS AND AUTOIMMUNITY RELATED TO THE PATHOGENESIS OF RA ARE IN THE SCOPE OF THIS REVIEW.	2009	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
14   852  39 CHOLANGIOCARCINOMA IN PATIENTS WITH PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS (PSC): A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW. CHOLANGIOCARCINOMA (CCA) IS THE MOST COMMON MALIGNANCY IN PATIENTS WITH PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS (PSC) AND CARRIES A HIGH RATE OF MORTALITY. ALTHOUGH THE PATHOGENESIS OF CCA IN PSC IS LARGELY UNKNOWN, INFLAMMATION-DRIVEN CARCINOGENESIS CONCOMITANT WITH VARIOUS GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES ARE UNDERLYING FACTORS. THE MAJORITY OF CCA CASES DEVELOP FROM A DOMINANT STRICTURE (DS), WHICH IS DEFINED AS A STRICTURE WITH A DIAMETER < 1.5 MM IN THE COMMON BILE DUCT OR < 1.0 MM IN THE HEPATIC DUCT. IN PSC PATIENTS PRESENTING WITH AN ABRUPT AGGRAVATION OF JAUNDICE, PAIN, FATIGUE, PRURITUS, WEIGHT LOSS, OR WORSENING LIVER BIOCHEMISTRIES, CCA SHOULD BE SUSPECTED AND EVALUATED UTILIZING A VARIETY OF DIAGNOSTIC MODALITIES. HOWEVER, EARLY RECOGNITION OF CCA IN PSC REMAINS A MAJOR CHALLENGE. IMPORTANTLY, 30-50% OF CCA IN PSC PATIENTS ARE OBSERVED WITHIN THE FIRST YEAR FOLLOWING THE DIAGNOSIS OF PSC FOLLOWED BY AN ANNUAL INCIDENCE RANGING FROM 0.5 TO 1.5 PER 100 PERSONS, WHICH IS NEARLY 10 TO 1000 TIMES HIGHER THAN THAT IN THE GENERAL POPULATION. CUMULATIVE 5-YEAR, 10-YEAR, AND LIFETIME INCIDENCES ARE 7%, 8-11%, AND 9-20%, RESPECTIVELY. WHEN PSC-ASSOCIATED CCA IS DIAGNOSED, MOST TUMORS ARE UNRESECTABLE, AND NO EFFECTIVE MEDICATIONS ARE AVAILABLE. GIVEN THE POOR THERAPEUTIC OUTCOME, THE SURVEILLANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF PSC PATIENTS WHO ARE AT AN INCREASED RISK OF DEVELOPING CCA ARE OF IMPORTANCE. SUCH PATIENTS INCLUDE OLDER MALES WITH LARGE-DUCT PSC AND POSSIBLY CONCURRENT ULCERATIVE COLITIS. THUS, MORE ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO PATIENTS WITH THESE CLINICAL FEATURES, IN PARTICULAR WITHIN THE FIRST YEAR AFTER PSC DIAGNOSIS. IN CONTRAST, CCA IS LESS FREQUENTLY OBSERVED IN PEDIATRIC OR FEMALE PSC PATIENTS OR IN THOSE WITH SMALL-DUCT PSC OR CONCURRENT CROHN'S DISEASE. RECENTLY, NEW BIOMARKERS SUCH AS ANTIBODIES TO GLYCOPROTEIN 2 HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF DEVELOPING CCA IN PSC. HEREIN, WE REVIEW THE LITERATURE ON THE PATHOGENESIS, INCIDENCE, CLINICAL FEATURES, AND RISK FACTORS, WITH A FOCUS ON VARIOUS DIAGNOSTIC MODALITIES OF PSC-ASSOCIATED CCA.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
15  2752  37 EXPRESSION OF ANGIOGENIC FACTORS IN CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKAEMIA: ROLE OF THE BCR/ABL ONCOGENE, BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS, AND POTENTIAL CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS. CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKAEMIA (CML) IS A STEM CELL DISEASE CHARACTERIZED BY AN INCREASED PRODUCTION AND ACCUMULATION OF CLONAL BCR/ABL-POSITIVE CELLS IN HAEMATOPOIETIC TISSUES. THE CHRONIC PHASE OF CML IS INEVITABLY FOLLOWED BY AN ACCELERATED PHASE OF THE DISEASE, WITH CONSECUTIVE BLAST CRISIS. HOWEVER, DEPENDING ON GENETIC STABILITY, EPIGENETIC EVENTS, AND SEVERAL OTHER FACTORS, THE CLINICAL COURSE AND SURVIVAL APPEAR TO VARY AMONG PATIENTS. RECENT DATA SUGGEST THAT ANGIOGENIC CYTOKINES SUCH AS VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR (VEGF), ARE UP-REGULATED IN CML, AND PLAY A ROLE IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF THE DISEASE. THESE FACTORS APPEAR TO BE PRODUCED AND RELEASED IN LEUKAEMIC CELLS IN PATIENTS WITH CML. IN LINE WITH THIS NOTION, INCREASED SERUM-LEVELS OF ANGIOGENIC GROWTH FACTORS ARE MEASURABLE IN CML PATIENTS. IN THIS STUDY WE PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF ANGIOGENIC GROWTH FACTORS EXPRESSED IN CML CELLS, DISCUSS THE POSSIBLE PATHOGENETIC ROLE OF THESE CYTOKINES, THE BIOCHEMICAL BASIS OF THEIR PRODUCTION IN LEUKAEMIC CELLS, AND THEIR POTENTIAL CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS.	2004	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
16   537  32 ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA: IS IT REALLY ASYMPTOMATIC? PURPOSE OF REVIEW: HYPERURICEMIA IS HIGHLY PREVALENT, AFFECTING APPROXIMATELY 38 MILLION INDIVIDUALS IN THE UNITED STATES. HOWEVER, THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA - HYPERURICEMIA IN THE ABSENCE OF GOUT - CONTINUES TO BE DEBATED. RECENT FINDINGS: ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA RESULTS IN MONOSODIUM URATE CRYSTAL DEPOSITION IN TISSUES, WHICH MAY PROMOTE CHRONIC INFLAMMATION. INTRACELLULARLY, HYPERURICEMIA INHIBITS THE MASTER REGULATOR ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE (AMP)-ASSOCIATED PROTEIN KINASE AND MAY CONDITION INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSES THROUGH DURABLE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS. AT THE POPULATION LEVEL, ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA IS ASSOCIATED WITH MULTIPLE COMORBIDITIES, INCLUDING HYPERTENSION, CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE, CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE, AND DIABETES; LIMITATIONS OF THESE STUDIES INCLUDE THAT MOST ARE RETROSPECTIVE AND SOME DO NOT RIGOROUSLY DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA AND GOUT. TREATMENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT URATE LOWERING MAY REDUCE THE RISK OF INCIDENCE OR PROGRESSION OF SOME OF THESE COMORBIDITIES; UNFORTUNATELY, MANY OF THESE TREATMENT STUDIES ARE SMALL OR FLAWED, AND NOT ALL STUDY RESULTS ARE CONSISTENT. SUMMARY: ACCUMULATING EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA CONTRIBUTES TO THE COMORBIDITIES WITH WHICH IT ASSOCIATES AND THAT PROPER ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA TREATMENT MAY REDUCE FUTURE RISK. ADDITIONAL PROSPECTIVE TRIALS ARE NEEDED TO DEFINITELY ESTABLISH CAUSALITY AND SUPPORT DECISION-MAKING AS TO WHETHER, AND WHICH PATIENTS WITH ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA WOULD WARRANT URATE-LOWERING TREATMENT.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
17  4964  38 PATHOGENETIC AND CLINICAL ASPECTS OF ANTI-NEUTROPHIL CYTOPLASMIC AUTOANTIBODY-ASSOCIATED VASCULITIDES. ANTI-NEUTROPHIL CYTOPLASMIC AUTOANTIBODIES (ANCA) TARGETING PROTEINASE 3 (PR3) AND MYELOPEROXIDASE EXPRESSED BY INNATE IMMUNE CELLS (NEUTROPHILS AND MONOCYTES) ARE SALIENT DIAGNOSTIC AND PATHOGENIC FEATURES OF SMALL VESSEL VASCULITIS, COMPRISING GRANULOMATOSIS WITH POLYANGIITIS (GPA), MICROSCOPIC POLYANGIITIS, AND EOSINOPHILIC GPA. GENETIC STUDIES SUGGEST THAT ANCA-ASSOCIATED VASCULITIDES (AAV) CONSTITUTE SEPARATE DISEASES, WHICH SHARE COMMON IMMUNOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL FEATURES, BUT ARE OTHERWISE HETEROGENEOUS. THE SUCCESSFUL THERAPEUTIC USE OF ANTI-CD20 ANTIBODIES EMPHASIZES THE PROMINENT ROLE OF ANCA AND POSSIBLY OTHER AUTOANTIBODIES IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF AAV. HOWEVER, TO ELUCIDATE CAUSAL EFFECTS IN AAV, A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY LEADING TO THE EMERGENCE OF B LYMPHOCYTES THAT PRODUCE PATHOGENIC ANCA REMAINS A CHALLENGE. DIFFERENT SCENARIOS SEEM POSSIBLE; E.G., THE BREAK OF TOLERANCE INDUCED BY A SHIFT FROM NON-PATHOGENIC TOWARD PATHOGENIC AUTOANTIGEN EPITOPES IN INFLAMED TISSUE. THIS REVIEW GIVES A BRIEF OVERVIEW ON CURRENT KNOWLEDGE ABOUT GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC FACTORS, BARRIER DYSFUNCTION AND CHRONIC NON-RESOLVING INFLAMMATION, NECRO-INFLAMMATORY AUTO-AMPLIFICATION OF CELLULAR DEATH AND INFLAMMATION, ALTERED AUTOANTIGEN PRESENTATION, ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY ACTIVATION, ALTERATIONS WITHIN PERIPHERAL AND INFLAMED TISSUE-RESIDING T- AND B-CELL POPULATIONS, ECTOPIC LYMPHOID TISSUE NEOFORMATION, THE CHARACTERIZATION OF PR3-SPECIFIC T-CELLS, PROPERTIES OF ANCA, LINKS BETWEEN AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE AND INFECTION-TRIGGERED PATHOLOGY, AND ANIMAL MODELS IN AAV.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
18  4134  53 MECHANISMS OF HUMAN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. THE MAJOR RISK FACTORS AND ETIOLOGICAL AGENTS RESPONSIBLE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA IN HUMANS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AND CHARACTERIZED. AMONG THESE ARE CHRONIC INFECTION WITH HEPATITIS B VIRUS OR HEPATITIS C VIRUS, EXPOSURE TO AFLATOXIN B1, AND CIRRHOSIS OF ANY ETIOLOGY (INCLUDING ALCOHOLIC CIRRHOSIS AND CIRRHOSIS ASSOCIATED WITH GENETIC LIVER DISEASES). BOTH CHRONIC HEPATITIS AND CIRRHOSIS REPRESENT MAJOR PRENEOPLASTIC CONDITIONS OF THE LIVER AS THE MAJORITY OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMAS ARISE IN THESE PATHOLOGICAL SETTINGS. HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS REPRESENTS A LINEAR AND PROGRESSIVE PROCESS IN WHICH SUCCESSIVELY MORE ABERRANT MONOCLONAL POPULATIONS OF HEPATOCYTES EVOLVE. REGENERATIVE HEPATOCYTES IN FOCAL LESIONS IN THE INFLAMED LIVER (CHRONIC HEPATITIS OR CIRRHOSIS) GIVE RISE TO HYPERPLASTIC HEPATOCYTE NODULES, AND THESE PROGRESS TO DYSPLASTIC NODULES, WHICH ARE THOUGHT TO BE THE DIRECT PRECURSOR OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. IN MOST CASES, THE NEOPLASTIC TRANSFORMATION OF HEPATOCYTES RESULTS FROM ACCUMULATION OF GENETIC DAMAGE DURING THE REPETITIVE CELLULAR PROLIFERATION THAT OCCURS IN THE INJURED LIVER IN RESPONSE TO PARACRINE GROWTH FACTOR AND CYTOKINE STIMULATION. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMAS EXHIBIT NUMEROUS GENETIC ABNORMALITIES (INCLUDING CHROMOSOMAL DELETIONS, REARRANGEMENTS, ANEUPLOIDY, GENE AMPLIFICATIONS, AND MUTATIONS), AS WELL AS EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS (INCLUDING MODULATION OF DNA METHYLATION). THESE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS COMBINE TO ACTIVATE POSITIVE MEDIATORS OF CELLULAR PROLIFERATION (INCLUDING CELLULAR PROTO-ONCOGENES AND THEIR MITOGENIC SIGNALING PATHWAYS) AND INACTIVATE NEGATIVE MEDIATORS OF CELLULAR PROLIFERATION (INCLUDING TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES), RESULTING IN CELLS WITH AUTONOMOUS GROWTH POTENTIAL. HOWEVER, HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMAS EXHIBIT A HIGH DEGREE OF GENETIC HETEROGENEITY, SUGGESTING THAT MULTIPLE MOLECULAR PATHWAYS MAY BE INVOLVED IN THE GENESIS OF SUBSETS OF HEPATOCELLULAR NEOPLASMS. CONTINUED INVESTIGATION OF THE MECHANISMS OF HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS WILL REFINE OUR CURRENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR BASIS FOR NEOPLASTIC TRANSFORMATION IN LIVER, ENABLING THE DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES FOR PREVENTION AND/OR MORE EFFECTIVE TREATMENT OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA.	2003	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
19  4324  37 MICRORNAS IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS: FROM PATHOGENESIS TO CLINICAL IMPACT. OVER THE LAST DECADE, MANY EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF AUTOIMMUNE DISORDERS HAVE BEEN REVEALED. MICRORNAS (MIRNAS) ARE SMALL, NON-CODING, RNA MOLECULES THAT BIND TO MESSENGER RNAS AND DISRUPT THE TRANSCRIPTION OF TARGET GENES. RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (RA) IS A CHRONIC SYSTEMIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE IN WHICH A PLETHORA OF EPIGENETIC CHANGES TAKE PLACE. CURRENT RESEARCH ON RA EPIGENETICS HAS FOCUSED MAINLY ON MIRNAS. GENETIC VARIANCE OF SOME MIRNA GENES, ESPECIALLY MIR-499, MIGHT PREDISPOSE AN INDIVIDUAL TO RA DEVELOPMENT. ADDITIONALLY, ALTERED EXPRESSION OF MANY MIRNAS HAS BEEN DISCOVERED IN SEVERAL CELLS, TISSUES AND BODY FLUIDS IN PATIENTS WITH RA. MIRNAS EXPRESSION ALSO DIFFERS DEPENDING ON DISEASE'S STAGE AND ACTIVITY. SERUM MIR-22 AND MIR-103A MIGHT PREDICT RA DEVELOPMENT IN SUSCEPTIBLE INDIVIDUALS (PRE-RA), WHILE SERUM MIR-16, MIR-24, MIR-125A AND MIR-223 LEVELS ARE ALTERED IN EARLY RA (DISEASE DURATION <12 MONTHS) PATIENTS COMPARED TO ESTABLISHED RA OR HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS. MOREOVER, SERUM MIR-223 LEVELS HAVE BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH RA ACTIVITY AND DISEASE RELAPSE. WHAT IS MORE, SERUM LEVELS OF SEVERAL MIRNAS, INCLUDING MIR-125B AND MIR-223, COULD BE USED TO PREDICT RESPONSE TO RA TREATMENT. FINALLY, MIRNA ANALOGS OR ANTAGONISTS HAVE BEEN USED AS THERAPEUTIC REGIMENS IN EXPERIMENTAL ARTHRITIS MODELS AND HAVE DEMONSTRATED PROMISING RESULTS. IN CONCLUSION, THE RESEARCH ON THE MIRNA ALTERATIONS IN RA SHEDS LIGHT TO SEVERAL ASPECTS OF RA PATHOGENESIS, INTRODUCES NEW BIOMARKERS FOR RA DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT RESPONSE PREDICTION AND OFFERS THE OPPORTUNITY TO DISCOVER NEW, TARGETED DRUGS FOR PATIENTS WITH RA.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
20  4442  30 MOLECULAR GENETICS OF MDS/MPN OVERLAP SYNDROMES. THE MYELODYSPLASTIC/MYELOPROLIFERATIVE NEOPLASMS (MDS/MPN) ARE A HETEROGENOUS GROUP OF MYELOID MALIGNANCIES HALLMARKED BY CLINICOPATHOLOGIC FEATURES THAT OVERLAP WITH MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROMES AND MYELOPROLIFERATIVE NEOPLASMS. FORMALLY RECOGNIZED BY THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, THIS GROUP INCLUDES THE ENTITIES CHRONIC MYELOMONOCYTIC LEUKEMIA, JUVENILE MYELOMONOCYTIC LEUKEMIA, ATYPICAL CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKEMIA, MDS/MPN WITH RING SIDEROBLASTS AND THROMBOCYTOSIS AND MDS/MPN, UNCLASSIFIABLE. ADVANCEMENTS IN NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING HAVE BEGUN TO UNRAVEL THE MOLECULAR UNDERPINNINGS OF THESE DISEASES, IDENTIFYING AN ARRAY OF RECURRENTLY MUTATED GENES INVOLVED IN EPIGENETIC REGULATION, RNA SPLICING, TRANSCRIPTION, AND CELL SIGNALING. DESPITE MOLECULAR OVERLAP WITH OTHER MYELOID MALIGNANCIES, EACH ENTITY DISPLAYS A UNIQUE SPECTRUM OF SOMATIC MUTATIONS SUPPORTING THEIR UNIQUE PATHOBIOLOGY AND CLINICAL FEATURES. IMPORTANTLY, MOLECULAR PROFILING IS BECOMING AN INTEGRAL TOOL UTILIZED IN ROUTINE CLINICAL PRACTICE. THIS REVIEW SUMMARIZES OUR CURRENT UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS OF OVERLAP SYNDROMES AND DETAILS THE IMPACT OF SOMATIC MUTATIONS IN DIAGNOSTIC, PROGNOSTIC, AND THERAPEUTIC DECISION-MAKING.	2020