1 6781 255 [BREATHING: AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH - PART III]. THE THIRD PART OF THE DGP STATEMENT INTRODUCES THE CURRENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE ON LESS STUDIED HEALTH OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION: THE NEGATIVE IMPACT ON METABOLISM LEADING TO IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND DIABETES AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND DELAYED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN CHILDREN. FURTHERMORE, PRENATAL EXPOSURE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON MOTHER AND CHILD ARE ADDRESSED. FINALLY, THE CURRENTLY DISCUSSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ARE DESCRIBED.DIFFERING, BUT OFTEN COMPLEMENTARY BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CREATE THE BASIS FOR THE DIVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES CAUSED BY AIR POLLUTION. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND A SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IN THE LUNGS AND ON A SYSTEMIC LEVEL ("LOW-GRADE SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION") ARE CONSIDERED TO BE KEY MECHANISMS. THEY PROMOTE SECONDARY ALTERATIONS IN THE BODY, SUCH AS VASCULAR OR METABOLIC PROCESSES, AND MAY ALSO RESULT IN THE CURRENTLY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA OR NEUROINFLAMMATION. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLUBLE PARTICULATE MATTER AND THE ROLE OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES TRANSLOCATED ACROSS BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES INTO BLOOD VESSEL AND TRANSPORTED VIA THE CIRCULATION TO SECONDARY TARGET ORGANS, SUCH AS LIVER, BRAIN OR THE FETUS, ARE INTENSIVELY DISCUSSED.DIABETES IS ONE OF THE LEADING CHRONIC DISEASES WORLDWIDE, WITH A PREVALENCE OF ALMOST 14 % IN GERMANY. ALTHOUGH LIFESTYLE FACTORS ARE THE MAIN CAUSES, CURRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION MAY ADDITIONALLY INCREASE THE RISK FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR A CAUSAL ROLE OF AIR POLLUTION IS PROVIDED BY STUDIES ADDRESSING THE REGULATION OF THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS IN METABOLICALLY HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS, INSULIN SENSITIVITY, OR PREGNANCY-RELATED DIABETES. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES PROVIDE FURTHER SUPPORT FOR PLAUSIBLE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, PROSPECTIVE STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO GAIN MORE EVIDENCE, TAKING MULTIPLE LIFESTYLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SUCH AS GREEN SPACE AND NOISE, AND AN IMPROVED INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT INTO ACCOUNT.THE AGING POPULATION HAS AN INCREASED RISK OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. FIRST STUDIES POINT TOWARDS A CONTRIBUTION OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, SPECIFICALLY BY PARTICULATE MATTER. SEVERAL STUDIES REPORT ITS ASSOCIATION WITH DECREASED NEUROCOGNITIVE CAPACITY OR AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DEMENTIA OR ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADULTS. HOWEVER, THE STUDIES ARE INHOMOGENEOUS REGARDING DESIGN, EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT RESULTS. WITH RESPECT TO THE INFLUENCE ON NEUROCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN, FIRST STUDIES SUGGEST AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION, E. G. AT SCHOOL, AND DELAYED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.EVEN THOUGH THE EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS DURING PREGNANCY IS STILL HETEROGENEOUS, THE STUDIES GENERALLY POINT TOWARDS AN ADVERSE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL AND FETAL ORGANISMS. THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE EXISTS FOR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, WITH SMALL EFFECT SIZES OF ONLY SOME GRAMS, AND FOR A HIGHER INCIDENCE OF REDUCED BIRTH WEIGHT (< 2500 G). AN INCREASED RISK FOR GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION AND PREECLAMPSIA UNDERSCORES THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL ORGANISM. HOWEVER, THE CURRENT BODY OF EVIDENCE DOES NOT YET ALLOW A FINAL CONCLUSION ON THE INFLUENCE OF INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION REGARDING EARLY CHILDHOOD LUNG FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGIES, PARTICULARLY IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS HARD TO DISTINGUISH IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POSTNATAL EXPOSURE.	2019	

2 1324  52 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) METHYLATION IN CHILDREN EXPOSED TO AIR POLLUTION: A POSSIBLE MECHANISM UNDERLYING RESPIRATORY HEALTH EFFECTS DEVELOPMENT. AIR POLLUTION IS A SUBSTANTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREAT TO CHILDREN AND ACTS AS ACUTE AND CHRONIC DISEASE RISK FACTORS ALIKE. SEVERAL STUDIES HAVE PREVIOUSLY EVALUATED EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS CONCERNING ITS EXPOSURE ACROSS VARIOUS LIFE STAGES. HOWEVER, FINDINGS ON EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AS THE CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION DURING CHILDHOOD ARE RATHER MINIMAL. THIS REVIEW EVALUATED HIGHLY RELEVANT STUDIES IN THE FIELD TO ANALYZE THE EXISTING LITERATURE REGARDING EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, WITH A FOCUS ON EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS DURING CHILDHOOD AND THEIR CONNECTIONS WITH RESPIRATORY HEALTH EFFECTS. THE SEARCH WAS CONDUCTED USING READILY AVAILABLE ELECTRONIC DATABASES (PUBMED AND SCIENCEDIRECT) TO SCREEN FOR CHILDREN'S STUDIES ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS FOLLOWING EITHER PRE- OR POST-NATAL EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTANTS. STUDIES RELEVANT ENOUGH AND MATCHED THE PREDETERMINED CRITERIA WERE CHOSEN TO BE REVIEWED. NON-ENGLISH ARTICLES AND STUDIES THAT DID NOT REPORT BOTH AIR MONITORING AND EPIGENETIC OUTCOMES IN THE SAME ARTICLE WERE EXCLUDED. THE REVIEW FOUND THAT EPIGENETIC CHANGES HAVE BEEN LINKED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTANTS DURING EARLY LIFE WITH EVIDENCE AND REPORTS OF HOW THEY MAY DEREGULATE THE EPIGENOME BALANCE, THUS INDUCING DISEASE PROGRESSION IN THE FUTURE. EPIGENETIC STUDIES EVOLVE AS A PROMISING NEW APPROACH IN DECIPHERING THE UNDERLYING IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) DUE TO LINKS ESTABLISHED BETWEEN SOME OF THESE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND ILLNESSES.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
3 3582  42 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
4  625  48 BIOLOGICAL AGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS FOR DEMENTIA AND STROKE: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS. SINCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIBIOTICS AND VACCINATION, AS WELL AS MAJOR IMPROVEMENTS IN PUBLIC HYGIENE, THE MAIN RISK FACTORS FOR MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY ARE AGE AND CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, BOTH OF WHICH CAN INTERACT WITH GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS. AS THE AVERAGE AGE OF THE POPULATION INCREASES, THE PREVALENCE AND COSTS OF CHRONIC DISEASES, ESPECIALLY NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS, ARE RAPIDLY INCREASING. THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF AGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS, DEVELOP CHRONICALLY OVER RELATIVELY LONG PERIODS OF TIME, IN CONTRAST TO THE RELATIVELY RAPID DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES OR ACCIDENTS. OF PARTICULAR INTEREST IS THE HYPOTHESIS THAT THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS MAY BE MEDIATED BY ACCELERATION OF BIOLOGICAL AGE. THIS HYPOTHESIS IS SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE THAT DIETARY RESTRICTION, WHICH UNIVERSALLY DELAYS AGE-RELATED DISEASES, ALSO AMELIORATES DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. CONVERSELY, BOTH AGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACCUMULATION OF SOMATIC MUTATIONS IN MITOTIC CELLS AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS THAT ARE A MEASURE OF "BIOLOGICAL AGE", A BETTER PREDICTOR OF AGE-RELATED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY THAN CHRONOLOGICAL AGE. HERE WE REVIEW EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS SUCH AS SMOKING AND AIR POLLUTION MAY ALSO DRIVE NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS, INCLUDING ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, BY THE ACCELERATION OF BIOLOGICAL AGE, MEDIATED BY CUMULATIVE AND PERSISTENT EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AS WELL AS SOMATIC MUTATIONS. ELUCIDATION OF SUCH MECHANISMS COULD PLAUSIBLY ALLOW THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERVENTIONS WHICH DELAY DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF BOTH AGING AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
5 1932  48 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES: AN UNDERRECOGNIZED CONTRIBUTION TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES. PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE TO WHICH EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS) HAVE BEEN VERY CONSERVATIVE AND HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY UNDERESTIMATED THE ACTUAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR AT LEAST TWO REASONS. FIRSTLY, MOST PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE EXCLUDED THE CONTRIBUTION OF LIFESTYLE BEHAVIORAL RISK FACTORS, BUT THESE USUALLY INVOLVE SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS THAT INCREASE RISK OF DISEASE. SECONDLY, EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE TO CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IS NOW CLEARLY ASSOCIATED WITH AN ELEVATED RISK OF SEVERAL DISEASES LATER IN LIFE, BUT THESE CONNECTIONS ARE OFTEN DIFFICULT TO DISCERN. THIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE FOR ASTHMA AND NEURODEVELOPMENTAL CONDITIONS, BUT THERE IS ALSO A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY AND CHRONIC DISEASES. MOST CANCERS ARE CAUSED BY ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN GENETICALLY SUSCEPTIBLE INDIVIDUALS. IN ADDITION, NEW INFORMATION SHOWS SIGNIFICANT ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES AND DIABETES AND EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS PRESENT IN AIR, FOOD, AND WATER. THESE RELATIONSHIPS LIKELY REFLECT THE COMBINATION OF EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AND GENE INDUCTION. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE TO NCDS THAN PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE SUGGESTED. PREVENTION NEEDS TO SHIFT FOCUS FROM INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY AND AN UNDERSTANDING THAT EFFECTIVE PREVENTION OF NCDS ULTIMATELY RELIES ON IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE EXPOSURE TO MODIFIABLE RISKS.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
6 5434  39 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN CHILDREN AND ADULT LUNG DISEASE: THE CASE FOR OUTDOOR EXPOSURES. THERE IS A GROWING UNDERSTANDING THAT CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASES IN ADULTS HAVE THEIR ORIGINS IN EARLY LIFE. ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES OCCURRING IN VULNERABLE PERIODS DURING LUNG GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE FETAL PERIOD AND IN EARLY CHILDHOOD THAT ALTER LUNG STRUCTURE AND LIMIT THE GROWTH IN LUNG FUNCTION MAY HAVE LIFELONG CONSEQUENCES. EVIDENCE IS INCREASING THAT EXPOSURE TO THE AMBIENT ENVIRONMENT, INCLUDING AIR POLLUTANTS, PERSISTENT TOXIC SUBSTANCES, WATER POLLUTANTS AND RESPIRATORY VIRAL INFECTIONS, CAN INHIBIT LUNG FUNCTION GROWTH AND PREDISPOSE TO CHRONIC NON-MALIGNANT LUNG DISEASES. THESE EXPOSURES GENERALLY INTERACT WITH A GENETIC PREDISPOSITION, AND GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS AND EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA ARE ATTRACTING CONSIDERABLE STUDY. AN UNDERSTANDING OF HOW AMBIENT EXPOSURES IMPACT ON NORMAL LUNG GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT WILL AID IN UNDERSTANDING OF HOW CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASES OF ADULTS DEVELOP AND MAY LEAD TO NEW PREVENTATIVE STRATEGIES.	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
7 1936  58 ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES-AN EXPOSOME APPROACH. TYPE 2 DIABETES IS ONE OF THE MAJOR CHRONIC DISEASES ACCOUNTING FOR A SUBSTANTIAL PROPORTION OF DISEASE BURDEN IN WESTERN COUNTRIES. THE MAJORITY OF THE BURDEN OF TYPE 2 DIABETES IS ATTRIBUTED TO ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS AND MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS SUCH AS LIFESTYLE. THE ENVIRONMENT WE LIVE IN, AND CHANGES TO IT, CAN THUS CONTRIBUTE SUBSTANTIALLY TO THE PREVENTION OF TYPE 2 DIABETES AT A POPULATION LEVEL. THE 'EXPOSOME' REPRESENTS THE (MEASURABLE) TOTALITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL, I.E. NONGENETIC, DRIVERS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE. THE EXTERNAL EXPOSOME COMPRISES ASPECTS OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT, THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT, THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT AND THE LIFESTYLE/FOOD ENVIRONMENT. THE INTERNAL EXPOSOME COMPRISES MEASUREMENTS AT THE EPIGENETIC, TRANSCRIPT, PROTEOME, MICROBIOME OR METABOLOME LEVEL TO STUDY EITHER THE EXPOSURES DIRECTLY, THE IMPRINTS THESE EXPOSURES LEAVE IN THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM, THE POTENTIAL OF THE BODY TO COMBAT ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS AND/OR THE BIOLOGY ITSELF. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DESCRIBE THE EVIDENCE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES, FOCUSING ON BOTH THE GENERAL EXTERNAL EXPOSOME AND IMPRINTS OF THIS ON THE INTERNAL EXPOSOME. STUDIES PROVIDED ESTABLISHED ASSOCIATIONS OF AIR POLLUTION, RESIDENTIAL NOISE AND AREA-LEVEL SOCIOECONOMIC DEPRIVATION WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF TYPE 2 DIABETES, WHILE NEIGHBOURHOOD WALKABILITY AND GREEN SPACE ARE CONSISTENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH A REDUCED RISK OF TYPE 2 DIABETES. THERE IS LITTLE OR INCONSISTENT EVIDENCE ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE FOOD ENVIRONMENT, OTHER ASPECTS OF THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE. THESE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ARE THOUGHT TO AFFECT TYPE 2 DIABETES RISK MAINLY THROUGH MECHANISMS INCORPORATING LIFESTYLE FACTORS SUCH AS PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OR DIET, THE MICROBIOME, INFLAMMATION OR CHRONIC STRESS. TO FURTHER ASSESS CAUSALITY OF THESE ASSOCIATIONS, FUTURE STUDIES SHOULD FOCUS ON INVESTIGATING THE LONGITUDINAL EFFECTS OF OUR ENVIRONMENT (AND CHANGES TO IT) IN RELATION TO TYPE 2 DIABETES RISK AND WHETHER THESE ASSOCIATIONS ARE EXPLAINED BY THESE PROPOSED MECHANISMS.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
8  754  50 CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS TO PARTICLE INHALATION EXPOSURE: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF THE TOXICOLOGY. AMBIENT AIR, OCCUPATIONAL SETTINGS, AND THE USE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CONSUMER PRODUCTS ALL SERVE AS CONDUITS FOR TOXICANT EXPOSURE THROUGH INHALATION. WHILE THE PULMONARY SYSTEM REMAINS A PRIMARY TARGET FOLLOWING INHALATION EXPOSURE, CARDIOVASCULAR IMPLICATIONS ARE EXCEPTIONALLY CULPABLE FOR INCREASED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DYSFUNCTION RESULTING FROM ACUTE OR CHRONIC INHALATION EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE MATTER HAS BEEN WELL DOCUMENTED, BUT THE MECHANISMS DRIVING THE RESULTING DISTURBANCES REMAIN ELUSIVE. IN THE CURRENT REVIEW, WE AIM TO SUMMARIZE THE CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS THAT ARE DIRECTLY LINKED TO CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO A VARIETY OF INHALED TOXICANTS. THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW IS TO PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF THE BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM FOLLOWING PARTICLE INHALATION EXPOSURE AND TO HIGHLIGHT POTENTIAL BIOMARKERS THAT EXIST ACROSS MULTIPLE EXPOSURE PARADIGMS. WE ATTEMPT TO INTEGRATE THESE MOLECULAR SIGNATURES IN AN EFFORT TO PROVIDE DIRECTION FOR FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS. THIS REVIEW ALSO CHARACTERIZES HOW MOLECULAR RESPONSES ARE MODIFIED IN AT-RISK POPULATIONS, SPECIFICALLY THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE DURING CRITICAL WINDOWS OF DEVELOPMENT. MATERNAL EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE MATTER DURING GESTATION CAN LEAD TO FETAL EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING, RESULTING IN LONG-TERM DEFICITS TO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM. IN BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT (GESTATIONAL) EXPOSURES, CONNECTING THE BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS WITH FUNCTIONAL DEFICITS OUTLINES PATHWAYS THAT CAN BE TARGETED FOR FUTURE THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION. ULTIMATELY, FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS INTEGRATING "OMICS"-BASED APPROACHES WILL BETTER ELUCIDATE THE MECHANISMS THAT ARE ALTERED BY XENOBIOTIC INHALATION EXPOSURE, IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS, AND GUIDE IN CLINICAL DECISION MAKING.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
9 6088  61 THE EFFECTS OF ASSISTED REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES ON METABOLIC HEALTH AND DISEASEDAGGER. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF METABOLIC DISEASES PLACES A SUBSTANTIAL BURDEN ON HUMAN HEALTH THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. IT IS BELIEVED THAT PREDISPOSITION TO METABOLIC DISEASE STARTS EARLY IN LIFE, A PERIOD OF GREAT SUSCEPTIBILITY TO EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS. ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART), I.E., TREATMENTS FOR INFERTILITY, MAY AFFECT EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT, RESULTING IN MULTIPLE ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES IN POSTNATAL LIFE. THE MOST FREQUENTLY OBSERVED ALTERATION IN ART PREGNANCIES IS IMPAIRED PLACENTAL NUTRIENT TRANSFER. MOREOVER, CONSEQUENT INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT FOLLOWED BY CATCH-UP GROWTH CAN ALL PREDICT FUTURE OBESITY, INSULIN RESISTANCE, AND CHRONIC METABOLIC DISEASES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HAVE FOCUSED ON EVIDENCE OF ADVERSE METABOLIC ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ART, WHICH CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC ADULT-ONSET DISEASES, SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME, TYPE 2 DIABETES, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. DUE TO HIGH PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY, ART PREGNANCIES CAN PRODUCE BOTH OFFSPRING WITH ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES, AS WELL AS HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS. WE FURTHER DISCUSS THE SEX-SPECIFIC AND AGE-DEPENDENT METABOLIC ALTERATIONS REFLECTED IN ART OFFSPRING, AND HOW THE DEGREE OF INTERFERENCE OF A GIVEN ART PROCEDURE (FROM MILD TO MORE SEVERE MANIPULATION OF THE EGG) AFFECTS THE OCCURRENCE AND DEGREE OF OFFSPRING ALTERATIONS. OVER THE LAST FEW YEARS, STUDIES HAVE REPORTED SIGNS OF CARDIOMETABOLIC ALTERATIONS IN ART OFFSPRING THAT ARE DETECTABLE AT A YOUNG AGE BUT THAT DO NOT APPEAR TO CONSTITUTE A HIGH RISK OF DISEASE AND MORBIDITY PER SE. THESE ABNORMAL PHENOTYPES COULD BE EARLY INDICATORS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC DISEASES, INCLUDING METABOLIC SYNDROME, IN ADULTHOOD. THE EARLY DETECTION OF METABOLIC ALTERATIONS COULD CONTRIBUTE TO PREVENTING THE ONSET OF DISEASE IN ADULTHOOD. SUCH EARLY INTERVENTIONS MAY COUNTERACT THE RISK FACTORS AND IMPROVE THE LONG-TERM HEALTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
10 1371  48 DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE: NEW INSIGHTS. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT SMALL CHANGES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ENVIRONMENT CAN INDUCE PHENOTYPIC CHANGES AFFECTING AN INDIVIDUAL'S RESPONSES TO THEIR LATER ENVIRONMENT. THESE MAY ALTER THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME OR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. RECENT RESEARCH SHOWS THAT ANIMALS EXPOSED TO SUCH A MISMATCH BETWEEN PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT DEVELOP OBESITY, REDUCED ACTIVITY, LEPTIN AND INSULIN RESISTANCE, ELEVATED BLOOD PRESSURE AND VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION. EPIGENETIC PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED IN SUCH EFFECTS, TARGETED TO PROMOTER REGIONS OF SPECIFIC GENES IN SPECIFIC TISSUES. SUCH FINE CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION SUGGESTS THAT THE MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN RETAINED THROUGH EVOLUTION THROUGH THEIR ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE, RATHER THAN REPRESENTING EXTREME EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION AKIN TO TERATOGENESIS. THERE MAY BE ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CUE INDUCING A PHENOTYPIC CHANGE IN GENERATIONS BEYOND THE IMMEDIATE PREGNANCY, AND A RANGE OF DATA THAT SUPPORT THIS CONCEPT. IN ANIMALS, EPIGENETIC EFFECTS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION CAN BE PASSED TO SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS, INCLUDING ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS, MAY INDUCE GREATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE, EVEN AT LOW EXPOSURE LEVELS, IF THEY AFFECT SUCH NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL EPIGENETIC PROCESSES. APPROPRIATE INTERVENTIONS MAY HAVE LONG-TERM MULTIGENERATIONAL EFFECTS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
11 4626  56 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS: EPIGENETICS AS AN UNDERLYING MECHANISM. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS, ESPECIALLY AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS (ASD) AND ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD), CALLS FOR MORE RESEARCH INTO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ETIOLOGIC AND RISK FACTORS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) HYPOTHESIZES THAT THE ENVIRONMENT DURING FETAL AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT AFFECTS THE RISK FOR MANY CHRONIC DISEASES IN LATER STAGES OF LIFE, INCLUDING NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. EPIGENETICS, A TERM DESCRIBING MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE CHANGES IN THE CHROMOSOME STATE WITHOUT AFFECTING DNA SEQUENCES, IS SUGGESTED TO BE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM, ACCORDING TO THE DOHAD HYPOTHESIS. MOREOVER, MANY NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS ARE ALSO RELATED TO EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES. EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT EXPOSURE TO PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS IS ASSOCIATED WITH NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. IN ADDITION, THERE IS ALSO EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS CAN RESULT IN EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, NOTABLY DNA METHYLATION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE FIRST FOCUS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS, IN PARTICULAR MATERNAL SMOKING, PLASTIC-DERIVED CHEMICALS (BISPHENOL A AND PHTHALATES), PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS, AND HEAVY METALS. WE THEN REVIEW STUDIES SHOWING THE EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF THOSE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN HUMANS THAT MAY AFFECT NORMAL NEURODEVELOPMENT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
12 1911  54 ENVIRONMENT IN CHILDREN'S HEALTH: A NEW CHALLENGE FOR RISK ASSESSMENT. IN THE LAST FEW YEARS, MANY STUDIES HAVE FOCUSED ON THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANT EXPOSURE DURING THE PRENATAL PERIOD OR INFANCY AS PREDICTORS OF HEALTH OUTCOMES IN THE FUTURE. IN THESE TIME WINDOWS, DUE TO THEIR RAPID GROWTH, AND PHYSIOLOGIC AND METABOLIC DEVELOPMENT, WE CAN OBSERVE A HIGHER VULNERABILITY TO THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT, WITH RESPECT TO ADULTHOOD. THE EVIDENCE OF POSSIBLE INFLUENCES, PARTLY MEDIATED BY EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, INVOLVE NEUROBEHAVIORAL RESPONSES AND IMMUNE, ENDOCRINE, AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS, ACTING DIRECTLY ON THE CHILD OR INDIRECTLY WHEN MEDIATED BY PLACENTAL TRANSFER OR BREAST FEEDING. IN PARTICULAR, DUE TO A GREATER INTAKE OF AIR, FOOD, AND FLUIDS RELATIVE TO BODY WEIGHT, CRAWLING BEHAVIORS AND SHORT STATURE, THE RISK OF EXCESSIVE EXPOSURE IS GREATER IN CHILDREN. HOWEVER, DATA ON THE LONG-TERM IMPLICATIONS OF EARLY EXPOSURES ARE SCARCE. ADDITIONALLY, SO THAT PHYSICIANS AND INSTITUTIONS FOR CHILD CARE AND ASSISTANCE OF PREGNANT WOMEN CAN TAKE ACTIONS TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION (I.E., BY EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES), A RISK ASSESSMENT PERSPECTIVE THAT RESPONDS TO THE BIOCOMPLEXITY OF THE HUMAN BEING IS NEEDED. THE PRESENT PAPER PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW OF PHYSIOLOGIC AND BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS DURING THE PERINATAL PERIOD AND IN CHILDHOOD, SUGGESTING IN A MORE INTEGRATED WAY, THE NEED OF A NEW RISK-ASSESSMENT APPROACH TO MANAGING CHRONIC DISEASE IN PEDIATRIC PATIENTS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
13 4803  40 OBESITY AND MALE INFERTILITY. THE WORLDWIDE PREVALENCE OF OBESITY IS INCREASING AMONG BOTH SEXES, WITH ASSOCIATED IMPACTS ON CHRONIC HEALTH AND MEDICAL COMORBIDITIES. SIMILARLY, THE EFFECTS OF OBESITY ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ARE INCREASINGLY BEING RECOGNIZED. ADIPOSITY IS ASSOCIATED WITH REDUCED FERTILITY IN MEN, WITH A COMPLEX AND MULTIFACTORIAL ETIOLOGY. THE REPORTED EFFECTS OF OBESITY ON SEMEN PARAMETERS AND IMPAIRED FERTILITY ARE CONTRASTING, WITH SOME STUDIES SHOWING A CLEAR REDUCTION IN REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED BODY MASS INDEX, WHILE OTHERS DO NOT SHOW SUCH IMPACTS. THESE CONTROVERSIES MAY BE DUE TO THE COMPLEX PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND INTERPLAY BETWEEN GONADOTROPINS AND END ORGANS, AS WELL AS GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES AND OXIDATIVE STRESS ON MALE FERTILITY AND FUNCTION. THESE DIFFERENT ASPECTS HAVE LED TO HETEROGENEOUS PARTICIPANTS IN STUDIES AND VARYING IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES AS WELL AS OFFSPRING HEALTH. TREATMENT MODALITIES TO MANAGE OBESITY INCLUDE LIFESTYLE, MEDICAL, AND SURGICAL OPTIONS, WITH EMERGING AND EFFECTIVE MEDICAL TREATMENTS SHOWING PROMISE IN REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
14 2802  62 FETAL AND INFANT ORIGINS OF ASTHMA. PREVIOUS STUDIES HAVE SUGGESTED THAT ASTHMA, LIKE OTHER COMMON DISEASES, HAS AT LEAST PART OF ITS ORIGIN EARLY IN LIFE. LOW BIRTH WEIGHT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISKS OF ASTHMA, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE AIRWAY DISEASE, AND IMPAIRED LUNG FUNCTION IN ADULTS, AND INCREASED RISKS OF RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD. THE DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY HYPOTHESIS SUGGESTS THAT THE ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND DISEASES IN LATER LIFE ARE EXPLAINED BY ADAPTATION MECHANISMS IN FETAL LIFE AND INFANCY IN RESPONSE TO VARIOUS ADVERSE EXPOSURES. VARIOUS PATHWAYS LEADING FROM ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT EXPOSURES TO GROWTH ADAPTATIONS AND RESPIRATORY HEALTH OUTCOMES HAVE BEEN STUDIED, INCLUDING FETAL AND EARLY INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS, MATERNAL SMOKING AND DIET, CHILDREN'S DIET, RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS AND ACETAMINOPHEN USE, AND GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY. STILL, THE SPECIFIC ADVERSE EXPOSURES IN FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE LEADING TO RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE ARE NOT YET FULLY UNDERSTOOD. CURRENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT BOTH ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENETIC FACTORS IN VARIOUS PERIODS OF LIFE, AND THEIR EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MAY UNDERLIE THE COMPLEX ASSOCIATIONS OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN LATER LIFE. NEW WELL-DESIGNED EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC UNDERLYING MECHANISMS. THIS REVIEW IS FOCUSED ON SPECIFIC ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS AND EXPOSURES, GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY, POSSIBLE RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES FOR NEW STUDIES.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
15 6554  51 TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS ON AGING AND DISEASE INCIDENCE. ADVERSE EARLY LIFE EXPERIENCES ARE MAJOR INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES WITH POTENTIALLY LIFE-LONG CONSEQUENCES. PRENATAL OR EARLY POSTNATAL EXPOSURE TO STRESS, UNDERNUTRITION OR ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS MAY REPROGRAM BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND INCREASE RISK OF BEHAVIOURAL AND NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS LATER IN LIFE. NOT ONLY EXPERIENCE WITHIN A SINGLE LIFETIME, BUT ALSO ANCESTRAL EXPERIENCE AFFECTS HEALTH TRAJECTORIES AND CHANCES OF SUCCESSFUL AGING. THE CENTRAL MECHANISM IN TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING OF A DISEASE MAY BE THE FORMATION OF EPIGENETIC MEMORY. THIS REVIEW EXPLORES TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF EARLY ADVERSE EXPERIENCE ON HEALTH AND DISEASE INCIDENCE IN OLDER AGE. FIRST, WE ADDRESS MECHANISMS OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING OF DISEASE AND INHERITANCE. SECOND, WE DISCUSS EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL FINDINGS LINKING EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS TO ADVERSE AGING TRAJECTORIES IN ASSOCIATION WITH POSSIBLE PARENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS AND SEX-SPECIFIC EFFECTS. THIRD, WE OUTLINE THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF AGE-RELATED FUNCTIONAL DECLINE AND SUGGEST POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS TO REVERSE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING. THUS, STRATEGIES THAT SUPPORT HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT AND SUCCESSFUL AGING SHOULD TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE POTENTIAL INFLUENCES OF TRANSGENERATIONAL INHERITANCE.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
16 1801  53 EFFECT OF MATERNAL DIET ON THE EPIGENOME: IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN METABOLIC DISEASE. THE RAPID INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES OVER THE PAST TWO DECADES CANNOT BE EXPLAINED SOLELY BY GENETIC AND ADULT LIFESTYLE FACTORS. THERE IS NOW CONSIDERABLE EVIDENCE THAT THE FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT ALSO STRONGLY INFLUENCES THE RISK OF DEVELOPING SUCH DISEASES IN LATER LIFE. HUMAN STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT LOW BIRTH WEIGHT IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF CVD, TYPE II DIABETES, OBESITY AND HYPERTENSION, ALTHOUGH RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT OVER-NUTRITION IN EARLY LIFE CAN ALSO INCREASE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FUTURE METABOLIC DISEASE. THESE FINDINGS HAVE BEEN REPLICATED IN A VARIETY OF ANIMAL MODELS, WHICH HAVE SHOWN THAT BOTH MATERNAL UNDER- AND OVER-NUTRITION CAN INDUCE PERSISTENT CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION AND METABOLISM WITHIN THE OFFSPRING. THE MECHANISM BY WHICH THE MATERNAL NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT INDUCES SUCH CHANGES IS BEGINNING TO BE UNDERSTOOD AND INVOLVES THE ALTERED EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF SPECIFIC GENES. THE DEMONSTRATION OF A ROLE FOR ALTERED EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF GENES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL INDUCTION OF CHRONIC DISEASES RAISES THE POSSIBILITY THAT NUTRITIONAL OR PHARMACEUTICAL INTERVENTIONS MAY BE USED TO MODIFY LONG-TERM CARDIO-METABOLIC DISEASE RISK AND COMBAT THIS RAPID RISE IN CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
17 2495  58 EPIGENETICS AND DOHAD: FROM BASICS TO BIRTH AND BEYOND. DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) IS THE STUDY OF HOW THE EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT CAN IMPACT THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASES FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD AND THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS AND NON-CODING RNAS ARE INVOLVED IN MEDIATING HOW EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS LATER HEALTH. THIS REVIEW IS A SUMMARY OF THE EPIGENETICS AND DOHAD WORKSHOP HELD AT THE 2016 DOHAD SOCIETY OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND CONFERENCE. OUR EXTENSIVE KNOWLEDGE OF HOW THE EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS LATER RISK FOR CHRONIC DISEASE WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE WITHOUT ANIMAL MODELS. IN THIS REVIEW WE HIGHLIGHT SOME ANIMAL MODEL EXAMPLES THAT DEMONSTRATE HOW AN ADVERSE EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE RESULTS IN EPIGENETIC AND GENE EXPRESSION CHANGES THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE LATER IN LIFE. TYPE 2 DIABETES AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE ARE CHRONIC DISEASES WITH AN INCREASING INCIDENCE DUE TO THE INCREASED NUMBER OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS THAT ARE OBESE. EPIGENETIC CHANGES SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH METABOLIC HEALTH MEASURES AND POTENTIALLY PREDICT FUTURE METABOLIC HEALTH STATUS. ALTHOUGH MORE DIFFICULT TO ELUCIDATE IN HUMANS, RECENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT DNA METHYLATION MAY BE ONE OF THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT MEDIATES THE EFFECTS OF EARLY LIFE EXPOSURES ON LATER LIFE RISK OF OBESITY AND OBESITY RELATED DISEASES. FINALLY, WE DISCUSS THE ROLE OF THE MICROBIOME AND HOW IT IS A NEW PLAYER IN DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING AND MEDIATING EARLY LIFE EXPOSURES ON LATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
18 6234  58 THE LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ON GROWTH AND METABOLISM. PEOPLE WHO WERE SMALL AT BIRTH AND HAD POOR INFANT GROWTH HAVE AN INCREASED RISK OF ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, OSTEOPOROSIS, AND TYPE 2 DIABETES, PARTICULARLY IF THEIR RESTRICTED EARLY GROWTH WAS FOLLOWED BY INCREASED CHILDHOOD WEIGHT GAIN. THESE RELATIONS EXTEND ACROSS THE NORMAL RANGE OF BIRTH SIZE IN A GRADED MANNER, SO REDUCED SIZE IS NOT A PREREQUISITE. IN ADDITION, LARGER BIRTH SIZE IS ASSOCIATED WITH RISKS OF OBESITY AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. THE ASSOCIATIONS APPEAR TO REFLECT DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTIC RESPONSES MADE BY THE FETUS AND INFANT BASED ON CUES ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT, INFLUENCED BY MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING DIET, BODY COMPOSITION, STRESS, AND EXERCISE LEVELS. THESE RESPONSES INVOLVE EPIGENETIC PROCESSES THAT MODIFY THE OFFSPRING'S PHENOTYPE. VULNERABILITY TO ILL HEALTH RESULTS IF THE ENVIRONMENT IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, AND LATER LIFE IS MISMATCHED TO THE PHENOTYPE INDUCED IN DEVELOPMENT, INFORMED BY THE DEVELOPMENTAL CUES. THIS MISMATCH MAY ARISE THROUGH UNBALANCED DIET OR BODY COMPOSITION OF THE MOTHER OR A CHANGE IN LIFESTYLE FACTORS BETWEEN GENERATIONS. THESE INSIGHTS OFFER NEW POSSIBILITIES FOR THE EARLY DIAGNOSIS AND PREVENTION OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
19 3848  38 IS EPIGENETICS AN IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND ADULT DISEASE? BACKGROUND: EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS PROVIDE ONE POTENTIAL EXPLANATION FOR HOW ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES IN EARLY LIFE CAUSE LONG-TERM CHANGES IN CHRONIC DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY. WHEREAS EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION IS INCREASINGLY IMPLICATED IN VARIOUS RARE DEVELOPMENTAL SYNDROMES AND CANCER, THE ROLE OF EPIGENETICS IN COMPLEX CHRONIC DISEASES, SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, TYPE 2 DIABETES AND OBESITY, REMAINS LARGELY UNCHARACTERIZED. EXTENSIVE WORK IN ANIMAL MODELS IS REQUIRED TO DEVELOP SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES THAT CAN BE PRACTICABLY TESTED IN HUMANS. ANIMAL MODELS: WE HAVE DEVELOPED A MOUSE MODEL SHOWING THAT METHYL DONOR SUPPLEMENTATION PREVENTS TRANSGENERATIONAL AMPLIFICATION OF OBESITY, SUGGESTING A ROLE FOR DNA METHYLATION IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ESTABLISHMENT OF BODY WEIGHT REGULATION. CONCLUSIONS: COUPLING SUCH MODELS WITH RECENTLY DEVELOPED EPIGENOMIC TECHNOLOGIES SHOULD ULTIMATELY ENABLE US TO DETERMINE IF EPIGENETICS IS AN IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND ADULT DISEASE.	2009	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
20 3771  57 INTER- AND TRANSGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE: EVIDENCE IN ASTHMA AND COPD? EVIDENCE IS NOW EMERGING THAT EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT CAN HAVE LIFELONG EFFECTS ON METABOLIC, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND PULMONARY FUNCTION IN OFFSPRING, A CONCEPT ALSO KNOWN AS FETAL OR DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING. IN MAMMALS, DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING IS THOUGHT TO OCCUR MAINLY VIA EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, WHICH INCLUDE DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND EXPRESSION OF NON-CODING RNAS. THE EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING CAN BE INDUCED BY THE INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENT, LEADING TO INTERGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC EFFECTS FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT. TRANSGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE MAY BE CONSIDERED WHEN DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS GENERATIONS THAT WERE NOT EXPOSED TO THE INITIAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH TRIGGERED THE CHANGE. SO FAR, INTER- AND TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING HAS BEEN MAINLY DESCRIBED FOR CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC DISEASE RISK. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS AVAILABLE EVIDENCE THAT EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE ALSO OCCURS IN RESPIRATORY DISEASES, USING ASTHMA AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD) AS EXAMPLES. WHILE MULTIPLE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AS WELL AS ANIMAL STUDIES DEMONSTRATE EFFECTS OF 'TOXIC' INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE ON VARIOUS ASTHMA-RELATED PHENOTYPES IN THE OFFSPRING, ONLY FEW STUDIES LINK EPIGENETIC MARKS TO THE OBSERVED PHENOTYPES. AS EPIGENETIC MARKS MAY DISTINGUISH INDIVIDUALS MOST AT RISK OF LATER DISEASE AT EARLY AGE, IT WILL ENABLE EARLY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES TO REDUCE SUCH RISKS. TO ACHIEVE THIS GOAL FURTHER, WELL DESIGNED EXPERIMENTAL AND HUMAN STUDIES ARE NEEDED.	2015