1 6029 146 THE BURDEN OF DIABETES: EMERGING DATA. IN RECENT TIMES, THE GLOBAL PREVALENCE OF DIABETES HAS INCREASED SUBSTANTIALLY, REACHING 8.3% IN 2014, WHICH CORRESPONDS TO 387 MILLION PATIENTS. STUDIES IN EUROPE AND USA HAVE SHOWN INCREASED INCIDENCE OF TYPE 1 DIABETES (T1D) OVER TIME AT A RATE OF 3-5% PER YEAR. ANOTHER MOST WORRYING FEATURE OF THE RAPID INCREASE OF DIABETES IS THE EMERGENCE OF TYPE 2 DIABETES (T2D) IN CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS, AND YOUNG ADULTS. THE WELL-KNOWN BEHAVIORAL RISKS FACTORS AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS RECENTLY OBSERVED REQUIRE AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO PREVENT T2D. DIABETES SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCES THE PATIENT' SURVIVAL, QUALITY OF LIFE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORGAN SYSTEM DEGENERATION. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN INCREASED MORTALITY IN DIABETIC PATIENTS, ESPECIALLY WOMEN, WHICH INCREASED APPROXIMATELY FIVEFOLD, WHEREAS CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY INCREASED 20- TO 30-FOLD WHEN COMPARED TO THE NORMAL POPULATION. DIABETES IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE AND VISION LOSS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES. AROUND 40% OF T1D AND T2D START ON RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY. WHILE AFTER 40 YEARS OF DIABETES, THE CUMULATIVE PROPORTION OF PATIENTS WITH ANY RETINOPATHY AND ADVANCED RETINOPATHY WAS 84.1 AND 50.2%, RESPECTIVELY. HOWEVER, THE MOST PREVALENT CHRONIC COMPLICATION OF DIABETES IS NEUROPATHY. DISTAL SYMMETRIC POLYNEUROPATHY OCCURS IN AT LEAST 20% OF PEOPLE WITH T1D AFTER 20 YEARS AND IN 10-15% OF NEWLY DIAGNOSED T2D, INCREASING TO 50% AFTER 10 YEARS. CARDIOVASCULAR AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY MAY BE PRESENT IN UP TO 60% OF PATIENTS AFTER 15 YEARS AND IS AN INDEPENDENT RISK FACTOR FOR CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
2 6633  34 UNHEALTHY SMOKERS: SCOPES FOR PROPHYLACTIC INTERVENTION AND CLINICAL TREATMENT. BACKGROUND: GLOBALLY, TOBACCO USE CAUSES APPROXIMATELY 6 MILLION DEATHS PER YEAR, AND PREDICTIONS REPORT THAT WITH CURRENT TRENDS; MORE THAN 8 MILLION DEATHS ARE EXPECTED ANNUALLY BY 2030. CIGARETTE SMOKINGS IS CURRENTLY ACCOUNTABLE FOR MORE THAN 480,000 DEATHS EACH YEAR IN UNITED STATES (US) AND IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF PREVENTABLE DEATH IN THE US. ON AVERAGE, SMOKERS DIE 10 YEARS EARLIER THAN NONSMOKERS AND IF SMOKING CONTINUES AT ITS CURRENT PROPORTION AMONG ADOLESCENTS, ONE IN EVERY 13 AMERICANS AGED 17 YEARS OR YOUNGER IS EXPECTED TO DIE PREMATURELY FROM A SMOKING-RELATED ILLNESS. EVEN THOUGH THERE HAS BEEN A MARGINAL SMOKING DECLINE OF AROUND 5% IN RECENT YEARS (2005 VS 2015), SMOKERS STILL ACCOUNT FOR 15% OF THE US ADULT POPULATION. WHAT IS ALSO CONCERNING IS THAT 41,000 OUT OF 480,000 DEATHS RESULTS FROM SECONDHAND SMOKE (SHS) EXPOSURE. HEREIN, WE PROVIDE A DETAILED REVIEW OF HEALTH COMPLICATIONS AND MAJOR PATHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INCLUDING MUTATION, INFLAMMATION, OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND HEMODYNAMIC AND PLASMA PROTEIN CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC SMOKING. FURTHER, WE DISCUSS PROPHYLACTIC INTERVENTIONS AND ASSOCIATED BENEFITS AND PROVIDE A RATIONALE FOR THE SCOPE OF CLINICAL TREATMENT. CONCLUSIONS: CONSIDERING THESE PREMISES, IT IS EVIDENT THAT MUCH DETAILED TRANSLATIONAL AND CLINICAL STUDIES ARE NEEDED. FACTORS SUCH AS THE LENGTH OF SMOKING CESSATION FOR EX-SMOKERS, THE LEVEL OF SMOKE EXPOSURE IN CASE OF SHS, PRE-ESTABLISHED HEALTH CONDITIONS, GENETICS (AND EPIGENETICS MODIFICATION CAUSED BY CHRONIC SMOKING) ARE FEW OF THE CRITERIA THAT NEED TO BE EVALUATED TO BEGIN ASSESSING THE PROPHYLACTIC AND/OR THERAPEUTIC IMPACT OF TREATMENTS AIMED AT CHRONIC AND FORMER SMOKERS (ESPECIALLY EARLY STAGE EX-SMOKERS) INCLUDING THOSE FREQUENTLY SUBJECTED TO SECOND HAND TOBACCO SMOKE EXPOSURE. HEREIN, WE PROVIDE A DETAILED REVIEW OF HEALTH COMPLICATIONS AND MAJOR PATHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS INCLUDING MUTATION, INFLAMMATION, OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND HEMODYNAMIC AND PLASMA PROTEIN CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC SMOKING. FURTHER, WE DISCUSS ABOUT PROPHYLACTIC INTERVENTIONS AND ASSOCIATED BENEFITS AND PROVIDE A RATIONALE AND SCOPE FOR CLINICAL TREATMENT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                    
3  726  42 CAN TYPE 1 DIABETES BE AN UNEXPECTED COMPLICATION OF OBESITY? TYPE 1 DIABETES (T1D) IS ONE OF THE MOST COMMON CHRONIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES, CHARACTERIZED BY ABSOLUTE INSULIN DEFICIENCY CAUSED VIA INFLAMMATORY DESTRUCTION OF THE PANCREATIC BETA-CELL. GENETIC, EPIGENETIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS PLAY A ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISEASES. ALMOST (1/5) OF CASES INVOLVE PEOPLE UNDER THE AGE OF 20. IN RECENT YEARS, THE INCIDENCE OF BOTH T1D AND OBESITY HAS BEEN INCREASING, ESPECIALLY AMONG CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS, AND YOUNG PEOPLE. IN ADDITION, ACCORDING TO THE LATEST STUDY, THE PREVALENCE OF OVERWEIGHT OR OBESITY IN PEOPLE WITH T1D HAS INCREASED SIGNIFICANTLY. THE RISK FACTORS OF WEIGHT GAIN INCLUDED USING EXOGENOUS INSULIN, INTENSIFYING INSULIN THERAPY, FEAR OF HYPOGLYCEMIA AND RELATED DECREASE IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS, SUCH AS EMOTIONAL EATING AND BINGE EATING. IT HAS ALSO BEEN SUGGESTED THAT T1D MAY BE A COMPLICATION OF OBESITY. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BODY SIZE IN CHILDHOOD, INCREASE IN BODY MASS INDEX VALUES IN LATE ADOLESCENCE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF T1D IN YOUNG ADULTHOOD IS CONSIDERED. MOREOVER, THE COEXISTENCE OF T1D AND T2D IS INCREASINGLY OBSERVED, THIS SITUATION IS CALLED DOUBLE OR HYBRID DIABETES. THIS IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF THE EARLIER DEVELOPMENT OF DYSLIPIDEMIA, CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES, CANCER, AND CONSEQUENTLY A SHORTENING OF LIFE. THUS, THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW WAS TO SUMMARIZE THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN OVERWEIGHT OR OBESITY AND T1D.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
4 1389  32 DIABETIC RETINOPATHY AND SYSTEMIC FACTORS. DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, AN OCULARDISEASE, IS GOVERNED BY SYSTEMIC AS WELL AS LOCAL OCULAR FACTORS. THESE INCLUDE PRIMARILY CHRONIC LEVELS OF BLOOD GLUCOSE. INDIVIDUALS WITH CHRONICALLY ELEVATED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS HAVE SUBSTANTIALLY MORE, AND MORE SEVERE, RETINOPATHY THAN THOSE WITH LOWER BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS. THE RELATIONSHIP OF BLOOD GLUCOSE TO RETINOPATHY IS CONTINUOUS, WITH NO THRESHOLD ALTHOUGH INDIVIDUALS WITH HEMOGLOBIN A1C LEVELS (A MEASURE OF CHRONIC GLYCEMIA) <6.5%, GENERALLY DEVELOP LITTLE OR NO RETINOPATHY. BLOOD PRESSURE LEVELS HAVE BEEN CLAIMED TO INFLUENCE RETINOPATHY DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION, BUT MULTIPLE CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIALS OF ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS IN DIABETIC SUBJECTS HAVE PRODUCED ONLY WEAK EVIDENCE OF BENEFIT FROM BLOOD PRESSURE LOWERING ON THE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. ELEVATED BLOOD LIPIDS SEEM TO PLAY A ROLE IN THE PROGRESSION OF RETINOPATHY, AND TWO TRIALS OF FENOFIBRATE, A LIPID-LOWERING AGENT THAT HAS NOT PROVED EFFECTIVE IN PREVENTING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, HAVE SHOWN BENEFIT IN PREVENTING RETINOPATHY PROGRESSION. THE MECHANISM OF THIS EFFECT MAY NOT, HOWEVER, BE DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE REDUCTION IN BLOOD LIPIDS. FINALLY, THERE IS STRONG, BUT ONLY CIRCUMSTANTIAL, EVIDENCE FOR A GENETIC OR EPIGENETIC INFLUENCE ON THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. DESPITE THE POWER OF LARGE-SCALE EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES AND MODERN MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES, THE GENE OR GENES, WHICH PREDISPOSE OR PROTECT AGAINST THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY REMAIN ELUSIVE.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
5 1913  36 ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENETIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO DIABETES. DIABETES MELLITUS (DM) IS A HETEROGENEOUS GROUP OF DISORDERS CHARACTERIZED BY PERSISTENT HYPERGLYCEMIA. ITS TWO MOST COMMON FORMS ARE TYPE 1 DIABETES (T1D) AND TYPE 2 DIABETES (T2D), FOR WHICH GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS ACT IN SYNERGY. BECAUSE IT OCCURS IN CHILDREN AND INVOLVES INFECTIOUS, AUTOIMMUNE OR TOXIC DESTRUCTION OF THE INSULIN-SECRETING PANCREATIC BETA-CELLS, TYPE 1 DIABETES HAS BEEN CALLED JUVENILE OR INSULIN-DEFICIENT DIABETES. IN TYPE 2, PATIENTS CAN STILL SECRETE SOME INSULIN BUT ITS EFFECTIVENESS MAY BE ATTENUATED BY 'INSULIN RESISTANCE.' THERE IS ALSO A GROUP OF RARE FORMS OF DIABETES IN THE YOUNG WHICH ARE INHERITED AS MONOGENETIC DISEASES. WHETHER ONE CALLS THE UNDERLYING PROCESS 'GENES VS. ENVIRONMENT' OR 'NATURE VS NURTURE', DIABETES OCCURS AT THE INTERFACE OF THE TWO DOMAINS. TOGETHER WITH OUR GENETIC BACKGROUND WE ARE BORN TABULA RASA-A BLANK SLATE UPON WHICH THE STORY OF LIFE, WITH ALL ITS ENVIRONMENTAL INPUTS WILL BE WRITTEN. THERE IS ONE PROVISO: THE INFLUENCE OF EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE MUST ALSO BE CONSIDERED. THUS, IN THE CREATION OF DATABASES THAT INCLUDE "BIG DATA" ORIGINATING FROM GENOMIC AS WELL AS EXPOSOME (DEFINED AS: THE TOTALITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE FROM CONCEPTION TO DEATH), A BROAD PERSPECTIVE IS CRUCIAL AS THESE FACTORS ACT IN CONCERT IN SUCH CHRONIC ILLNESSES AS DIABETES THAT, FOR EXAMPLE, ARE LIKELY TO REQUIRE ADOPTION OF AN APPROPRIATE LIFESTYLE CHANGE. ALSO, IT IS BECOMING INCREASINGLY EVIDENT THAT EPIGENETIC FACTORS CAN MODULATE THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN GENES AND ENVIRONMENT. CONSEQUENTLY, THROUGHOUT THE LIFE OF AN INDIVIDUAL NATURE AND NURTURE INTERACT IN A COMPLEX MANNER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETES. THIS REVIEW ADDRESSES THE QUESTION OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF GENE AND ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR INTERACTIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETES.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
6 6469  34 TISSUE-SPECIFIC METHYLATION PROFILE IN OBESE PATIENTS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES BEFORE AND AFTER ROUX-EN-Y GASTRIC BYPASS. EATING HABITS, LIFESTYLES, AND EXPOSURE TO SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CAN GREATLY IMPACT THE RISK OF DEVELOPING TYPE 2 DIABETES (T2D), INFLUENCE THE GENOME EPIGENETICALLY, AND AFFECT THE EXPRESSION OF GENES, INCLUDING GENES RELATED TO GLYCEMIC CONTROL, AT ANY STAGE OF LIFE. THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISM UNDERLYING OBESITY AND T2D PATHOGENESIS REMAINS POORLY UNDERSTOOD. CONVENTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR THE TREATMENT OF OBESITY AND ITS COMORBIDITIES OFTEN HAVE POOR LONG-TERM ADHERENCE, AND PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS ARE LIMITED. BARIATRIC SURGERY IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE CURRENT OPTION TO TREAT SEVERE OBESITY, AND ROUX-EN-Y GASTRIC BYPASS (RYGB) IS THE MOST APPLIED TECHNIQUE WORLDWIDE. EPIGENETIC CHANGES DIFFER DEPENDING ON THE APPROACH USED TO TREAT OBESITY AND ITS ASSOCIATED COMORBIDITIES (CLINICAL OR SURGICAL). COMPARED TO PRIMARY CLINICAL CARE, BARIATRIC SURGERY LEADS TO MUCH GREATER LOSS OF BODY WEIGHT AND HIGHER REMISSION RATES OF T2D AND METABOLIC SYNDROME, WITH METHYLATION PROFILES IN PROMOTER REGIONS OF GENES IN OBESE INDIVIDUALS BECOMING SIMILAR TO THOSE OF NORMAL-WEIGHT INDIVIDUALS. BARIATRIC SURGERY CAN INFLUENCE DNA METHYLATION IN PARALLEL WITH CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION PATTERN. CHANGES IN CLINICAL BIOMARKERS THAT REFLECT IMPROVEMENTS IN GLUCOSE AND LIPID METABOLISM AFTER RYGB OFTEN OCCUR BEFORE MAJOR WEIGHT LOSS AND ARE COORDINATED BY SURGERY-INDUCED CHANGES IN INTESTINAL HORMONES. THEREFORE, THE INTESTINE METHYLATION PROFILE WOULD ASSIST IN UNDERSTANDING THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN IMPROVED GLYCEMIC CONTROL AFTER BARIATRIC SURGERY. THE MAIN OBJECTIVES IN THIS AREA FOR THE FUTURE ARE TO IDENTIFY EPIGENETIC MARKS THAT COULD BE USED AS EARLY INDICATORS OF METABOLIC RISK, AND TO DEVELOP TREATMENTS ABLE TO DELAY OR EVEN REVERSE THESE EPIGENETIC CHANGES. STUDIES THAT PROVIDE THE "HUMAN EPIGENETIC PROFILE" WILL BE OF CONSIDERABLE VALUE TO IDENTIFY TISSUE-SPECIFIC EPIGENETIC SIGNATURES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC DISEASES. FURTHER STUDIES SHOULD APPLY METHODS BASED ON GLOBAL ANALYSIS OF THE GENOME TO IDENTIFY METHYLATED SITES ASSOCIATED WITH DISEASE AND EPIGENETIC MARKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE REMODELING RESPONSE TO BARIATRIC SURGERY. THIS REVIEW DESCRIBES THE MAIN EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH OBESITY AND T2D AND THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF RYGB IN REMODELING THESE CHANGES.	2017	

7 2507  25 EPIGENETICS AND OBESITY: THE DEVIL IS IN THE DETAILS. OBESITY IS A COMPLEX DISEASE WITH MULTIPLE WELL-DEFINED RISK FACTORS. NEVERTHELESS, SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OBESITY AND ITS SEQUELAE WITHIN OBESOGENIC ENVIRONMENTS VARIES GREATLY FROM ONE PERSON TO THE NEXT, SUGGESTING A ROLE FOR GENE X ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS IN THE ETIOLOGY OF THE DISORDER. EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF THE HUMAN GENOME PROVIDES A PUTATIVE MECHANISM BY WHICH SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES CONVEY RISK FOR OBESITY AND OTHER HUMAN DISEASES AND IS ONE POSSIBLE MECHANISM THAT UNDERLIES THE GENE X ENVIRONMENT/TREATMENT INTERACTIONS OBSERVED IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES AND CLINICAL TRIALS. A STUDY PUBLISHED IN BMC MEDICINE THIS MONTH BY WANG ET AL. REPORTS ON AN EXAMINATION OF DNA METHYLATION IN PERIPHERAL BLOOD LEUKOCYTES OF LEAN AND OBESE ADOLESCENTS, COMPARING METHYLATION PATTERNS BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS. THE AUTHORS IDENTIFIED TWO GENES THAT WERE DIFFERENTIALLY METHYLATED, BOTH OF WHICH HAVE ROLES IN IMMUNE FUNCTION. HERE WE OVERVIEW THE FINDINGS FROM THIS STUDY IN THE CONTEXT OF THOSE EMERGING FROM OTHER RECENT GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC STUDIES, DISCUSS THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE STUDY AND SPECULATE ON THE FUTURE OF EPIGENETICS IN CHRONIC DISEASE RESEARCH.	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
8 6380  20 THE ROLE OF OBESITY AND DIABETES IN DEMENTIA. CHRONIC CONDITIONS SUCH AS OBESITY, DIABETES, AND DEMENTIA ARE INCREASING IN THE UNITED STATES (US) POPULATION. KNOWLEDGE OF THESE CHRONIC CONDITIONS, PREVENTATIVE MEASURES, AND PROPER MANAGEMENT TACTICS IS IMPORTANT AND CRITICAL TO PREVENTING DISEASE. THE OVERLAP BETWEEN OBESITY, DIABETES, AND DEMENTIA IS BECOMING FURTHER ELUCIDATED. THESE CONDITIONS SHARE A SIMILAR ORIGIN THROUGH THE COMPONENTS OF INCREASING AGE, GENDER, GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS, DEPRESSION, AND A HIGH-FAT WESTERN DIET (WD) THAT ALL CONTRIBUTE TO THE INFLAMMATORY STATE ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY, DIABETES, AND DEMENTIA. THIS INFLAMMATORY STATE LEADS TO THE DYSREGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE AND INSULIN RESISTANCE. OBESITY IS OFTEN THE CORNERSTONE THAT LEADS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETES AND, SUBSEQUENTLY, IN THE CASE OF TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS (T2DM), PROGRESSION TO "TYPE 3 DIABETES MELLITUS (T3DM)". OBESITY AND DEPRESSION ARE CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES. HOWEVER, DEMENTIA CAN BE AVOIDED WITH LIFESTYLE MODIFICATIONS, BY SWITCHING TO A PLANT-BASED DIET (E.G., A MEDITERRANEAN DIET (MD)), AND INCREASING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. DIET AND EXERCISE ARE NOT THE ONLY TREATMENT OPTIONS. THERE ARE SEVERAL SURGICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS AVAILABLE FOR PREVENTION. CURRENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH WITHIN EACH OF THESE FIELDS IS WARRANTED AND OFFERS THE CHANCE FOR NEW TREATMENT OPTIONS AND A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE PATHOGENESIS OF EACH CONDITION.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
9 1386  38 DIABETES: AN UPDATE ON THE PANDEMIC AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS. DIABETES MELLITUS IS A CHRONIC METABOLIC DISEASE WITH DEADLY, DISABLING, AND COSTLY CONSEQUENCES FOR INDIVIDUALS, FAMILIES, COMMUNITIES, AND COUNTRIES. ALTHOUGH THEY ARE PHENOTYPICALLY DISTINCT, DIABETES SUBTYPES (TYPE 1, TYPE 2, GESTATIONAL, AND OTHER FORMS) ARE ALL DEFINED BY ELEVATED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS. APPROXIMATELY 95 PERCENT OF DIABETES CASES WORLDWIDE ARE TYPE 2 DIABETES (PREVIOUSLY KNOWN AS ADULT-ONSET OR NON-INSULIN-DEPENDENT DIABETES), WHICH IS THE FOCUS OF THIS CHAPTER. TYPE 1 DIABETES (PREVIOUSLY KNOWN AS INSULIN-DEPENDENT DIABETES) MOST COMMONLY BEGINS IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE. GESTATIONAL DIABETES REFERS TO ELEVATED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS DURING PREGNANCY AMONG WOMEN WITHOUT PREVIOUS DIABETES AND IS ASSOCIATED WITH FETAL, BIRTHING, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD COMPLICATIONS AS WELL AS HIGHER RISK OF THE MOTHER DEVELOPING POSTGESTATION DIABETES. THE GROWTH OF DIABETES AND ITS IMPACTS HAVE ACCELERATED WORLDWIDE SINCE THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (NCD-RISC 2016), LIKELY CORRELATED WITH EXPANSION OF DIABETES RISK FACTORS, ESPECIALLY POPULATION AGING AND OBESITY. DIABETES IS A MULTIFACTORIAL CONDITION. BECAUSE GENETIC, EPIGENETIC, LIFESTYLE, ECONOMIC, AND PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS ALL CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETES (MCCARTHY 2010; STUMVOLL, GOLDSTEIN, AND VAN HAEFTEN 2005), PREVENTING AND MANAGING THE CONDITION REQUIRE ACTION AT POLICY, PROGRAM, CLINICAL PRACTICE, AND INDIVIDUAL LEVELS (HILL AND OTHERS 2013). RELIABLE AND MEANINGFUL ESTIMATES OF BURDENS, RISK FACTORS, AND EFFECTIVENESS AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS AS WELL AS EVALUATIONS OF EXISTING POLICIES, ARE LIMITED; DATA ARE ESPECIALLY SCARCE IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES (LMICS). THIS CHAPTER FOCUSES ON WHAT CAN AND SHOULD BE DONE TO ADDRESS DIABETES. WE PRESENT THE AVAILABLE DATA REGARDING GLOBAL BURDENS AND TRENDS IN DIABETES; REVIEW AVAILABLE EVIDENCE AND ASSESS THE EFFECTIVENESS AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS TO PREVENT, DETECT, AND CONTROL DIABETES; AND REPORT SUMMARY EXPERT OPINIONS REGARDING THE PRIORITY AND FEASIBILITY OF IMPLEMENTING THESE INTERVENTIONS. ASSIMILATING EVIDENCE FROM COUNTRIES AT DIFFERENT INCOME LEVELS, WE PROVIDE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE DIABETES PANDEMIC, RECOMMEND PRIORITY INTERVENTIONS, AND IDENTIFY REMAINING DATA GAPS.	2017	
                                                                                                       
10 4787  28 NUTRITION, AGING AND CANCER: LESSONS FROM DIETARY INTERVENTION STUDIES. THERE IS CONVINCING EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL EVIDENCE THAT, INDEPENDENT OF AGING, LIFESTYLE AND, NOTABLY, NUTRITION ARE ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPMENT OR PROGRESSION OF MAJOR HUMAN CANCERS, INCLUDING BREAST, PROSTATE, COLORECTAL TUMORS, AND AN INCREASINGLY LARGE COLLECTION OF DIET-RELATED CANCERS. MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THIS ASSOCIATION ARE MOSTLY RELATED TO THE DISTINCT EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIETARY PATTERNS. IN THIS CONTEXT, MEDITERRANEAN DIET HAS BEEN REPORTED TO SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE MORTALITY RATES FOR VARIOUS CHRONIC ILLNESSES, INCLUDING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES, NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES AND CANCER. ALTHOUGH MANY OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES HAVE SUPPORTED THIS EVIDENCE, DIETARY INTERVENTION STUDIES USING A MEDITERRANEAN DIETARY PATTERN OR ITS SELECTED FOOD COMPONENTS ARE STILL LIMITED AND AFFECTED BY A RATHER LARGE VARIABILITY IN CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDY SUBJECTS, TYPE AND LENGTH OF INTERVENTION, SELECTED END-POINTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS. HERE WE REVIEW DATA OF TWO OF OUR INTERVENTION STUDIES, THE MEDIET STUDY AND THE DIMESA PROJECT, AIMED AT ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL MEDITERRANEAN DIET AND/OR ITS COMPONENT(S) ON A LARGE PANEL OF BOTH PLASMA AND URINE BIOMARKERS. BOTH PUBLISHED AND UNPUBLISHED RESULTS ARE PRESENTED AND DISCUSSED.	2016	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
11 1388  26 DIABETIC PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE: NON-INVASIVE ASSESSMENT OF CARDIOVASCULAR RISK. THE PREVALENCE AND BURDEN OF DIABETES MELLITUS AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE ON GLOBAL HEALTH AND SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IS ALREADY HEAVY AND STILL RISING. DIABETES MELLITUS BY ITSELF IS LINKED TO ADVERSE CARDIOVASCULAR EVENTS, AND THE PRESENCE OF CONCOMITANT CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE FURTHER AMPLIFIES CARDIOVASCULAR RISK. THE CULMINATION OF TRADITIONAL (MALE GENDER, SMOKING, ADVANCED AGE, OBESITY, ARTERIAL HYPERTENSION AND DYSLIPIDEMIA) AND NON-TRADITIONAL RISK FACTORS (ANEMIA, INFLAMMATION, PROTEINURIA, VOLUME OVERLOAD, MINERAL METABOLISM ABNORMALITIES, OXIDATIVE STRESS, ETC.) CONTRIBUTES TO ADVANCED ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND INCREASED CARDIOVASCULAR RISK. TO DECREASE THE MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY OF THESE PATIENTS DUE TO CARDIOVASCULAR CAUSES, TIMELY AND EFFICIENT CARDIOVASCULAR RISK ASSESSMENT IS OF HUGE IMPORTANCE. CARDIOVASCULAR RISK ASSESSMENT CAN BE BASED ON LABORATORY PARAMETERS, IMAGING TECHNIQUES, ARTERIAL STIFFNESS PARAMETERS, ANKLE-BRACHIAL INDEX AND 24 H BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS. NEWER METHODS INCLUDE EPIGENETIC MARKERS, SOLUBLE ADHESION MOLECULES, CYTOKINES AND MARKERS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS. IN THIS REVIEW, THE AUTHORS PRESENT SEVERAL NON-INVASIVE METHODS OF CARDIOVASCULAR RISK ASSESSMENT IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES MELLITUS AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
12 5618  31 SARS-COV-2 INTERACTION WITH HUMAN DNA METHYL TRANSFERASE 1: A POTENTIAL RISK FOR INCREASING THE INCIDENCE OF LATER CHRONIC DISEASES IN THE SURVIVED PATIENTS. CURRENTLY, THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC IS THE MOST DISCUSSED SUBJECT IN MEDICAL RESEARCHES WORLDWIDE. AS THE KNOWLEDGE IS EXPANDED ABOUT THE DISEASE, MORE HYPOTHESES BECOME CREATED. A RECENT STUDY ON THE VIRAL PROTEIN INTERACTION MAP REVEALED THAT SARS-COV-2 OPEN READING FRAME 8 (ORF8) INTERACTS WITH HUMAN DNA METHYL TRANSFERASE1 (DNMT1), AN ACTIVE EPIGENETIC AGENT IN DNA METHYLATION. MOREOVER, DNMT1 IS A CONTRIBUTOR TO A VARIETY OF CHRONIC DISEASES WHICH COULD CAUSE SOME EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION IN INFECTED CELLS, ESPECIALLY LEUKOCYTES, PANCREATIC BETA, AND ENDOTHELIAL CELLS. REGARDING THE FACT THAT EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS HAVE A PARTIAL, BUT NOT COMPLETELY REVERSIBLE PHENOMENA, IT RAISES THE QUESTION THAT IF THIS INTERACTION MAY CAUSE LONG-TERM COMPLICATIONS SUCH AS DIABETES, ATHEROSCLEROSIS, CANCER, AND AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES. ACCORDINGLY, LONG FOLLOW-UP STUDIES ON THE RECOVERED PATIENTS FROM COVID-19 ARE RECOMMENDED.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
13 5670  35 SHARED (EPI)GENOMIC BACKGROUND CONNECTING NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. THE PROGRESSIVE AGING OF POPULATIONS HAS RESULTED IN AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF CHRONIC PATHOLOGIES, ESPECIALLY OF METABOLIC, NEURODEGENERATIVE AND MOVEMENT DISORDERS. IN PARTICULAR, TYPE 2 DIABETES (T2D), ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE (AD) AND PARKINSON'S DISEASE (PD) ARE AMONG THE MOST PREVALENT AGE-RELATED, MULTIFACTORIAL PATHOLOGIES THAT DESERVE PARTICULAR ATTENTION, GIVEN THEIR DRAMATIC IMPACT ON PATIENT QUALITY OF LIFE, THEIR ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BURDEN AS WELL THE ETIOPATHOGENETIC MECHANISMS, WHICH MAY OVERLAP IN SOME CASES. INDEED, THE EXISTENCE OF COMMON TRIGGERING FACTORS REFLECTS THE CONTRIBUTION OF MUTUAL GENETIC, EPIGENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES IN THE ETIOPATHOGENETIC MECHANISMS UNDERLYING T2D AND AD/PD. ON THIS SUBJECT, THIS REVIEW WILL SUMMARIZE THE SHARED (EPI)GENOMIC FEATURES THAT CHARACTERIZE THESE COMPLEX PATHOLOGIES. IN PARTICULAR, GENETIC VARIANTS AND GENE EXPRESSION PROFILES ASSOCIATED WITH T2D AND AD/PD WILL BE DISCUSSED AS POSSIBLE CONTRIBUTORS TO DETERMINE THE SUSCEPTIBILITY AND PROGRESSION TO THESE DISORDERS. MOREOVER, POTENTIAL SHARED EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AND FACTORS AMONG T2D, AD AND PD WILL ALSO BE ILLUSTRATED. OVERALL, THIS REVIEW SHOWS THAT FINDINGS FROM GENOMIC STUDIES STILL DESERVES FURTHER RESEARCH TO EVALUATE AND IDENTIFY GENETIC FACTORS THAT DIRECTLY CONTRIBUTE TO THE SHARED ETIOPATHOGENESIS. MOREOVER, A COMMON EPIGENETIC BACKGROUND STILL NEEDS TO BE INVESTIGATED AND CHARACTERIZED. THE EVIDENCES DISCUSSED IN THIS REVIEW UNDERLINE THE IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRATING LARGE-SCALE (EPI)GENOMIC DATA WITH ADDITIONAL MOLECULAR INFORMATION AND CLINICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND IN ORDER TO FINELY DISSECT THE COMPLEX ETIOPATHOGENIC NETWORKS THAT BUILD UP THE "DISEASE INTERACTOME" CHARACTERIZING T2D, AD AND PD.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
14  125  29 A SYSTEMS BIOLOGY OVERVIEW ON HUMAN DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY: FROM GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY TO POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL AND POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS. DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY (DN), A MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATION OCCURRING IN APPROXIMATELY 20-40% OF PATIENTS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS (T2DM), IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE PROGRESSIVE IMPAIRMENT OF GLOMERULAR FILTRATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF KIMMELSTIEL-WILSON LESIONS LEADING TO END-STAGE RENAL FAILURE (ESRD). THE CAUSES AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS MEDIATING THE ONSET OF T2DM CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS ARE YET SKETCHY AND IT IS NOT CLEAR WHY DISEASE PROGRESSION OCCURS ONLY IN SOME PATIENTS. WE PERFORMED A SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE MOST RELEVANT STUDIES INVESTIGATING GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND SPECIFIC TRANSCRIPTOMIC, EPIGENETIC, PROTEOMIC, AND METABOLOMIC PATTERNS IN ORDER TO SUMMARIZE THE MOST SIGNIFICANT TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DISEASE ONSET AND PROGRESSION. THE PICTURE THAT EMERGES IS COMPLEX AND FASCINATING AS IT INCLUDES THE REGULATION/DYSREGULATION OF NUMEROUS BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES, CONVERGING TOWARD THE ACTIVATION OF INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES, OXIDATIVE STRESS, REMODELING OF CELLULAR FUNCTION AND MORPHOLOGY, AND DISTURBANCE OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS. THE GROWING INTEREST IN THE CHARACTERIZATION OF PROTEIN POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS AND THE IMPORTANCE OF HANDLING LARGE DATASETS USING A SYSTEMS BIOLOGY APPROACH ARE ALSO DISCUSSED.	2016	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
15 1045  30 CLINICAL CORRELATION AMONG MALE INFERTILITY AND OVERALL MALE HEALTH: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. PURPOSE: ONGOING EVIDENCE HAS SUGGESTED THE ROLE OF MALE FACTOR INFERTILITY AS A POTENTIAL PREDICTOR OF MORTALITY AND GENERAL HEALTH STATUS. THE AIM OF THE PRESENT REVIEW IS TO UPDATE THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE BASE REGARDING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN MALE FACTOR INFERTILITY AND GENERAL HEALTH THROUGH A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE WAS CARRIED OUT FROM INCEPTION TO NOVEMBER 2019 IN ORDER TO EVALUATE SIGNIFICANT ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN MALE INFERTILITY AND ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR, ONCOLOGIC, METABOLIC AND AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES AS WELL AS OVERALL MORTALITY. RESULTS: IN ALL, 27 STUDIES MET INCLUSION CRITERIA AND WERE CRITICALLY EXAMINED. FIVE STUDIES EXAMINED MALE INFERTILITY AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK, 11 EXAMINED ONCOLOGIC RISK (E.G., OVERALL CANCER RISK, TESTIS AND PROSTATE CANCER), 8 EXAMINED AGGREGATE CHRONIC MEDICAL DISEASES AND 5 INFERTILITY RELATED TO INCIDENCE OF MORTALITY, FOR A TOTAL OF 599,807 MEN DIAGNOSED WITH ANY MALE FACTOR INFERTILITY COVERING A PERIOD FROM 1916 TO 2016. CONCLUSIONS: A MAN'S FERTILITY AND OVERALL HEALTH APPEAR TO BE INTERCONNECTED. THEREFORE, A DIAGNOSIS OF MALE INFERTILITY MAY ALLOW A WINDOW INTO FUTURE COMORBIDITY AND/OR MORTALITY WHICH MAY HELP GUIDE CLINICAL DECISIONS AND COUNSELING. SEVERAL POSSIBLE ETIOLOGIES SUCH AS GENETIC, EPIGENETIC, DEVELOPMENTAL, AND LIFESTYLE-BASED FACTORS NEED TO BE FURTHER EVALUATED IN ORDER TO ESTABLISH THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS BETWEEN MALE INFERTILITY AND HEALTH.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
16 5281  30 PROMOTION AND SELECTION BY SERUM GROWTH FACTORS DRIVE FIELD CANCERIZATION, WHICH IS ANTICIPATED IN VIVO BY TYPE 2 DIABETES AND OBESITY. INDIVIDUALS SUFFERING FROM TYPE 2 DIABETES OR OBESITY EXHIBIT A SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CANCER. IT IS GENERALLY ACCEPTED THAT THOSE CONDITIONS ARISE FROM OVERNUTRITION AND A SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE, WHICH LEAD TO INSULIN RESISTANCE CHARACTERIZED BY OVERPRODUCTION OF INSULIN ACTING AS A GROWTH FACTOR. THERE IS A CONSENSUS BASED LARGELY ON EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA THAT CHRONIC OVERPRODUCTION OF INSULIN IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INCREASED INCIDENCE OF CANCER. A MODEL SYSTEM IN CULTURE OF NIH 3T3 CELLS INDUCES THE COLLECTIVE EFFECTS OF SERUM GROWTH FACTORS ON PROGRESSION THROUGH THE STAGES OF FIELD CANCERIZATION. IT SHOWS THAT THE DRIVING FORCE OF PROGRESSION IS PROMOTION OF CELL GROWTH UNDER SELECTION AT HIGH CELL DENSITY, WITH NO REQUIREMENT FOR EXOGENOUS CARCINOGENIC AGENTS. THE EARLY EFFECT IS GRADUAL SELECTION AMONG MANY PREEXISTING, LOW-PENETRANCE PRENEOPLASTIC MUTATIONS OR STABLE EPIGENETIC VARIANTS, FOLLOWED BY SPORADIC, HIGH-PENETRANCE TRANSFORMING VARIANTS, ALL DEPENDENT ON ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESULTS FOR CANCER IN DIABETIC AND OBESE INDIVIDUALS IS THAT THE INITIAL STAGES OF THE PROCESS INVOLVE MULTIORGAN METABOLIC INTERACTIONS THAT PRODUCE A SYSTEMIC INSULIN RESISTANCE WITH CHRONIC OVERPRODUCTION OF INSULIN AND LOCALIZED FIELD CANCERIZATION. HYPOMAGNESEMIA IS PREVALENT IN THE FOREGOING METABALO/SYSTEMIC DISORDERS, AND MAY ALSO PROVIDE A SELECTIVE MICROENVIRONMENT FOR TUMOR DEVELOPMENT.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
17 6306  29 THE RECOGNITION AND TREATMENT OF GROWTH DISORDERS - A 50-YEAR RETROSPECTIVE. THE PAST 50 YEARS HAVE SEEN GREAT PROGRESS IN THE UNDERSTANDING AND TREATMENT OF CLASSIC GROWTH DISORDERS. ADVANCES SUCH AS THE RECOGNITION OF HORMONE RECEPTOR DEFECTS, THE DEVELOPMENT OF RECOMBINANT GROWTH HORMONE, AND THE EXPANDING AWARENESS OF EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA AFFECTING GROWTH ARE AMONG THESE GREAT ACHIEVEMENTS. YET GROWTH FAILURE REMAINS A PERVASIVE PROBLEM AMONG CHILDREN WITH COMPLEX HEALTH CONDITIONS, SUCH AS SURVIVORS OF CHILDHOOD CANCERS, PREMATURE INFANTS, ORGAN TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS, AND CHILDREN WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS. THE SIGNIFICANT INCREASES IN LIFE EXPECTANCY AMONG THESE GROUPS UNDERSCORES THE POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES OF POOR GROWTH, WHETHER DUE TO THE UNDERLYING CONDITIONS OR MEDICAL TREATMENTS, AS THEY MAY HAVE LONG-LASTING EFFECTS INTO ADULTHOOD. THE ONGOING CONTRIBUTIONS OF HUMAN BIOLOGISTS TO THE STUDY OF HUMAN GROWTH REMAIN ESSENTIAL IN THE RECOGNITION AND TREATMENT OF GROWTH DISORDERS, BY DEFINING NORMAL PATTERNS OF GROWTH AND BODY COMPOSITION, THE INTERPLAY OF GROWTH AND MATURATION, THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL, BEHAVIORAL AND GENETIC FACTORS, AND THE LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES OF GROWTH PATTERNS. EXAMPLES WILL BE GIVEN BASED ON TWO COMMON GENETIC DISORDERS, CYSTIC FIBROSIS AND SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA, TO HIGHLIGHT THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN GROWTH FAILURE, SURVIVAL, AND MALNUTRITION. ALSO, A STUDY OF BONE MINERAL ACCRETION IN CHILDREN WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS WILL ILLUSTRATE THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING PATTERNS OF GROWTH IN HEALTHY CHILDREN, AND THEIR APPLICATION IN THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF CHILDREN WITH CHRONIC DISEASE. THESE EXAMPLES ACCENTUATE THE NEED FOR CONTINUED PARTICIPATION OF HUMAN BIOLOGISTS IN THE STUDY OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AND THE CARE OF CHILDREN.	2009	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
18 6631  35 UNDERSTANDING THE MANIFESTATION OF DIABETES IN SUB SAHARAN AFRICA TO INFORM THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES AND PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES: A NARRATIVE REVIEW. BACKGROUND: GLOBALLY, THE BURDEN OF DIABETES MELLITUS HAS INCREASED TO EPIDEMIC PROPORTIONS. ESTIMATES FROM THE INTERNATIONAL DIABETES FEDERATION PREDICT THAT THE GREATEST FUTURE INCREASE IN THE PREVALENCE OF DIABETES MELLITUS WILL OCCUR IN AFRICA. METHODS: THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS LITERATURE ON THE MANIFESTATION OF DIABETES IN ADULT PATIENTS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA HIGHLIGHTING THE DISTINCT PHENOTYPES, PLAUSIBLE EXPLANATIONS FOR THIS UNIQUE MANIFESTATION AND THE CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPREHENSIVELY DEFINING AND UNDERSTANDING THE AFRICAN DIABETES PHENOTYPE. RESULTS: THERE ARE FEW STUDIES ON THE MANIFESTATION OR PHENOTYPE OF DIABETES IN AFRICA. THE LIMITED DATA AVAILABLE SUGGESTS THAT, COMPARED TO THE WESTERN WORLD, THE MAJORITY OF PATIENTS WITH DIABETES IN AFRICA ARE YOUNG AND RELATIVELY LEAN IN BODY SIZE. IN ADDITION, HYPERGLYCAEMIA IN MOST CASES IS CHARACTERISED BY A SIGNIFICANTLY BLUNTED ACUTE FIRST PHASE OF INSULIN SECRETION IN RESPONSE TO AN ORAL OR INTRAVENOUS GLUCOSE LOAD AND PANCREATIC BETA CELL SECRETORY DYSFUNCTION, RATHER THAN PERIPHERAL INSULIN RESISTANCE PREDOMINATES. GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS LIKE CHRONIC INFECTIONS/INFLAMMATION, EARLY LIFE MALNUTRITION AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS ARE THOUGHT TO CONTRIBUTE TO THESE DISTINCT DIFFERENCES IN MANIFESTATION. CONCLUSIONS: WHILE PUBLISHED DATA IS LIMITED, THERE APPEARS TO BE DISTINCT PHENOTYPES OF DIABETES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. LARGE AND MORE DETAILED STUDIES ARE NEEDED ESPECIALLY AMONG NEWLY DIAGNOSED PATIENTS TO FULLY CHARACTERIZE DIABETES IN THIS REGION. THIS WILL FURTHER IMPROVE THE UNDERSTANDING OF MANIFESTATION OF DIABETES AND GUIDE THE FORMULATION OF OPTIMAL THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES AND PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES OF THE CONDITION ON THE CONTINENT.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
19 6870  28 [PATHOGENESIS OF THE METABOLIC SYNDROME]. AFTER AN INITIAL ATTEMPT BY THE WHO TO DEFINE METABOLIC SYNDROME (MS) ON A PATHOPHYSIOLOGICALLY ORIENTED APPROACH REQUIRING THE ASSESSMENT OF INSULIN RESISTANCE MARKERS, THE NCEP-ATPIII AND MORE RECENTLY THE IDF PROPOSED MORE CLINICALLY ORIENTED CRITERIA TO HELP, TOWARD A PREVENTIVE MEDICINE GOAL, TO IDENTIFY PATIENTS WHO ARE LIKELY TO HAVE FEATURES OF THE MS AND BE AT INCREASED RISK OF TYPE 2 DIABETES AND CARDIO VASCULAR DISEASE. THE NOTION OF MS IS BUILT AROUND ABNORMALITIES OF THE METABOLISM OF LIPIDS AND CARBON HYDRATES, A RISE OF BLOOD PRESSURE, AND VISCERAL OBESITY OF ABDOMINAL LOCALIZATION. THESE PARAMETERS REPORT ONLY PARTIALLY ON MECHANISMS LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MS. THE PHYSIOPATHOLOGY OF MS IS PARTIALLY UNDERSTOOD EVEN TODAY AND LIKELY RESULTS FROM THE COMBINATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL, GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC FACTORS. ABDOMINAL VISCERAL OBESITY, A STATE OF LOW-GRADE CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND INSULIN RESISTANCE ARE THE MAIN PROCESSES SUSCEPTIBLE TO EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS CONSTITUENTS OF THIS SYNDROME.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
20 4195  41 METABOLIC MEMORY: MECHANISMS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA OF DIABETES LEADS TO MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS THAT SEVERELY IMPACT QUALITY OF LIFE. DIABETIC RETINOPATHY (DR) MAY BE THE MOST COMMON OF THESE AND IS A LEADING CAUSE OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT AND BLINDNESS AMONG WORKING AGE ADULTS IN DEVELOPED NATIONS. MANY LARGE-SCALE TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES CLINICAL TRIALS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT EARLY INTENSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL CAN REDUCE THE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF MICRO AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. ON THE OTHER HAND, EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PROSPECTIVE DATA HAVE REVEALED THAT THE STRESSORS OF DIABETIC VASCULATURE PERSIST BEYOND THE POINT WHEN GLYCEMIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ACHIEVED. THESE KINDS OF PERSISTENT ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HYPERGLYCEMIA ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF COMPLICATIONS HAS BEEN DEFINED AS "METABOLIC MEMORY", AND OXIDATIVE STRESS, ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN THE PROCESS. RECENT STUDIES HAVE INDICATED THAT SUCH "HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY" MAY ALSO INFLUENCE DR, SUGGESTING THAT MANIPULATION OF HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY MAY PROVE A BENEFICIAL APPROACH TO PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. THIS REVIEW SUMMARIZES THE EVIDENCE FROM DR-RELATED CLINICAL TRIALS AND MECHANISTIC STUDIES TO INVESTIGATE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF METABOLIC MEMORY IN DR AND UNDERSTAND ITS POTENTIAL AS A TARGET OF MOLECULAR THERAPEUTICS AIMED AT REVERSING HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY.	2012