1 5962 168 TELOMERES, OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND TIMING FOR SPONTANEOUS TERM AND PRETERM LABOR. TELOMERES ARE NUCLEOPROTEIN COMPLEXES LOCATED AT THE DISTAL ENDS OF CHROMOSOMES. IN ADULTS, PROGRESSIVE TELOMERE SHORTENING OCCURS THROUGHOUT THE LIFETIME AND IS THOUGHT TO CONTRIBUTE TO PROGRESSIVE AGING, PHYSIOLOGICAL SENESCENCE, MULTIORGAN DYSFUNCTION, AND ULTIMATELY, DEATH. AS DISCUSSED IN THIS REVIEW, MULTIPLE LINES OF EVIDENCE PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR THE BIOLOGICAL PLAUSIBILITY THAT A TELOMERE-BASED CLOCK MECHANISM ALSO DETERMINES THE LENGTH OF GESTATION, LEADING TO THE ONSET OF LABOR (PARTURITION). AFTER TELOMERE EXPANSION AT THE BEGINNING OF PREGNANCY, THE TELOMERE LENGTHS IN THE GESTATIONAL TISSUES (IE, THE PLACENTA AND FETAL MEMBRANES) PROGRESSIVELY SHORTEN THROUGHOUT THE REMAINDER OF PREGNANCY. THE RATE OF TELOMERE SHORTENING CAN BE ACCELERATED BY CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT THE MOTHER AND RESULT IN OXIDATIVE STRESS. PRETERM BIRTHS IN THE UNITED STATES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH MULTIPLE RISK FACTORS THAT ARE LINKED WITH INCREASED OXIDATIVE STRESS. ANTIOXIDANT VITAMINS (IE, VITAMINS E AND C) MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DELAY OR PREVENT TELOMERE SHORTENING. CLINICAL TRIALS WITH VITAMINS E AND C AND WITH MULTIVITAMINS STARTED DURING THE PERICONCEPTION PERIOD HAVE BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH REDUCED RATES OF PRETERM BIRTHS. IN THE UNITED STATES, AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN HAVE A 2-3-FOLD HIGHER RATE OF PRETERM BIRTH. AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN HAVE MULTIPLE RISK FACTORS FOR PREMATURE BIRTH, ALL OF WHICH ARE DISTINCT AND POTENTIALLY ADDITIVE WITH REGARD TO EPIGENETIC TELOMERE SHORTENING. THE "WEATHERING EFFECT" IS THE HYPOTHESIS TO EXPLAIN THE INCREASED RATES OF CHRONIC ILLNESS, DISABILITIES, AND EARLY DEATH OBSERVED IN AFRICAN-AMERICANS. WITH REGARD TO PREGNANCY, ACCELERATED WEATHERING WITH THE ASSOCIATED TELOMERE SHORTENING IN THE GESTATIONAL TISSUES WOULD NOT ONLY EXPLAIN THE PRETERM BIRTH DISPARITY BUT COULD ALSO EXPLAIN WHY HIGHLY EDUCATED, AFFLUENT AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN CONTINUE TO HAVE AN INCREASED RATE OF PRETERM BIRTH. THESE STUDIES SUGGEST THAT THE RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH ARE POTENTIALLY MEDIATED BY TELOMERE SHORTENING PRODUCED BY LIFETIME OR EVEN GENERATIONAL EXPOSURE TO THE EFFECTS OF SYSTEMIC RACISM AND SOCIOECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION. IN CONCLUSION, THIS REVIEW PRESENTS MULTIPLE LINES OF EVIDENCE SUPPORTING A NOVEL HYPOTHESIS REGARDING THE BIOLOGICAL CLOCK MECHANISM THAT DETERMINES THE LENGTH OF PREGNANCY, AND IT OPENS THE POSSIBILITY OF NEW APPROACHES TO PREVENT OR REDUCE THE RATE OF SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
2 6625  48 UNDERSTANDING RACIAL DISPARITIES OF PRETERM BIRTH THROUGH THE PLACENTA. THE RACIAL DISPARITY ASSOCIATED WITH PRETERM BIRTH IS A PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERN IN THE UNITED STATES. THE PLACENTA IS THE PRINCIPAL METABOLIC, RESPIRATORY, AND ENDOCRINE ORGAN OF THE FETUS AND A KEY ROUTE BY WHICH ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ARE TRANSMITTED FROM MOTHER TO OFFSPRING. AVAILABLE AT EVERY DELIVERY, IT MAY SERVE AS A MARKER OF DIFFERENCES IN PRENATAL EXPOSURES THAT MANIFEST DIFFERENTLY BY RACE. RECENTLY, WE DESCRIBED DIFFERENCES IN PLACENTAL PATHOLOGY BETWEEN AFRICAN-AMERICAN AND WHITE PRETERM BIRTHS: THE PREVALENCE OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION WAS HIGHER AMONG AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN'S PLACENTAS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF WHITE WOMEN. SIMILARLY, RACIAL DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN SHOWN IN PLACENTAL MALPERFUSION AND PLACENTAL WEIGHT. SOCIAL DETERMINANTS SUCH AS POVERTY AND STRESS FROM DISCRIMINATION HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH. TO DATE, HOWEVER, THE UNDERLYING BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS, WHETHER THROUGH INFLAMMATORY, OXIDATIVE STRESS, OR OTHER PATHWAYS INVOLVING EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING, REMAIN LARGELY UNKNOWN. THE PLACENTA, COMPLEMENTED BY MATERNAL AND UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD BIOMARKERS, MAY PROVIDE IMPORTANT INFORMATION ON THE PERINATAL ENVIRONMENT THAT EXPLAINS THE ORIGINS OF RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH RATES AND SUBSEQUENT HEALTH OUTCOMES. THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS EXISTING LITERATURE AND CURRENT RESEARCH GAPS. OPPORTUNITIES ARE DISCUSSED FOR FUTURE PLACENTAL RESEARCH THAT MAY REVEAL NOVEL MECHANISMS LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW APPROACHES IN THE PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PRETERM BIRTH AND ITS OUTCOMES.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
3 5216  45 PRETERM BIRTH: LONG TERM CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL CONSEQUENCES. BACKGROUND: CARDIOVASCULAR AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASES ARE A PART OF NONCOMMUNICABLE CHRONIC DISEASES, THE LEADING CAUSES OF PREMATURE DEATH WORLDWIDE. THEY ARE RECOGNIZED AS HAVING EARLY ORIGINS THROUGH ALTERED DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING, DUE TO ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS DURING DEVELOPMENT. PRETERM BIRTH IS SUCH AN ADVERSE FACTOR. RATES OF PRETERM BIRTH INCREASED IN THE LAST DECADES, HOWEVER, WITH THE IMPROVEMENT IN PERINATAL AND NEONATAL CARE, A GROWING NUMBER OF PRETERM BORN SUBJECTS HAS NOW ENTERED ADULTHOOD. CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT PRETERM BIRTH IS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPAIRED OR ARRESTED STRUCTURAL OR FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF KEY ORGANS/SYSTEMS MAKING PRETERM INFANTS VULNERABLE TO CARDIOVASCULAR AND CHRONIC RENAL DISEASES AT ADULTHOOD. THIS REVIEW ANALYZES THE EVIDENCE OF SUCH CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL CHANGES, THE ROLE OF PERINATAL AND NEONATAL FACTORS SUCH AS ANTENATAL STEROIDS AND POTENTIAL PATHOGENIC MECHANISMS, INCLUDING DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS. CONCLUSION: PRETERM BORN SUBJECTS ARE EXPOSED TO A SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED RISK FOR ALTERED CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL FUNCTIONS AT YOUNG ADULTHOOD. ADEQUATE, SPECIFIC FOLLOW-UP MEASURES REMAIN TO BE DETERMINED. WHILE ANTENATAL STEROIDS HAVE CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED PRETERM BIRTH OUTCOMES, REPEATED THERAPY SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WITH CAUTION, AS ANTENATAL STEROIDS INDUCE LONG-TERM CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC ALTERATIONS IN ANIMALS' MODELS AND THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN THE ACCELERATED CELLULAR SENESCENCE OBSERVED IN HUMAN STUDIES CANNOT BE EXCLUDED.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
4 2419  42 EPIGENETIC SIGNATURE OF CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESS LOAD DURING PREGNANCY MIGHT BE A POTENTIAL BIOMARKER FOR SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH. PRETERM BIRTH IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF MORTALITY IN NEWBORN INFANTS AND CAN LEAD TO SIGNIFICANT NEONATAL MORBIDITIES. SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH ACCOUNTS FOR AT LEAST 50.0% OF ALL PRETERM BIRTHS. WE ARGUE THAT CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESS LOAD, WHICH IS AN IMPORTANT RISK FACTOR FOR SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH, COULD BE REPRESENTED BY EPIGENETIC SIGNATURE OF SEVERAL SPECIFIC GENETIC LOCI IN THE MOTHER'S BLOOD. A LITERATURE SEARCH WAS DONE IN PUBMED WITH THE FOLLOWING KEYWORDS: "DNA METHYLATION," "EPIGENETICS," "MATERNAL STRESS" AND "PRETERM BIRTH" FROM YEAR 2000 TO 2017. WE SUGGEST THAT THESE GENETIC LOCI MIGHT BE RELATED TO VULNERABILITY AND HYPERSENSIBILITY OF STRESS RESPONSE DURING PREGNANCY IN WOMEN WITH PRETERM BIRTHS. THE MOTHER'S EPI-GENETIC STRESS BIOPROFILE WAS SUPPOSED TO BE A RESULT OF CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESS LOAD SINCE HER BIRTH. THIS EPIGENETIC BIOPROFILE MIGHT ALSO BE A POTENTIAL BIOMARKER FOR SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH. DNA METHYLATION CHANGES ARE TISSUE-SPECIFIC AND HUMAN STRESS RESPONSE MANIFESTS MOSTLY THROUGH THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS). NEVERTHELESS, WE FOUND EVIDENCE THAT METHYLATION CHANGES OF DNA ISOLATED FROM BLOOD LEUCOCYTES MIGHT BE A RELIABLE MEASURE OF STRESS-RELATED EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE CNS. EVALUATING BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLE ASSAYS BASED ON EPIGENETIC CHANGES TO MEASURE CHRONIC STRESS LOADS IN EXPECTANT MOTHERS CAN LEAD TO OUR ABILITY TO PREPARE MORE EFFECTIVE MEASURES FOR THE PREVENTION OF PRETERM BIRTHS, AS WELL AS LEADING TO MORE EFFECTIVE TREATMENT STRATEGIES FOR BOTH EXPECTANT MOTHERS AND THEIR NEWBORNS.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
5 2605  28 EPIGENETICS-A POTENTIAL MEDIATOR BETWEEN AIR POLLUTION AND PRETERM BIRTH. PRETERM BIRTH IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF INFANT MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY AND A POTENTIAL RISK FACTOR FOR ADULT CHRONIC DISEASE. WITH OVER 15 MILLION INFANTS BORN PRETERM WORLDWIDE EACH YEAR, PRETERM BIRTH POSES A GLOBAL HEALTH CONCERN. THERE IS A POSSIBLE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN AIR POLLUTION AND PRETERM BIRTH, THOUGH STUDIES HAVE BEEN INCONSISTENT, LIKELY DUE TO VARIATION IN STUDY DESIGN. HOW AIR POLLUTION INDUCES HEALTH EFFECTS IS UNCERTAIN; HOWEVER, STUDIES HAVE REPEATEDLY DEMONSTRATED THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS. MORE RECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETICS MAY, IN TURN, BE LINKED TO PRETERM BIRTH. DISCOVERY OF ENVIRONMENTALLY MODIFIABLE EPIGENETIC PROCESSES CONNECTED TO PRETERM BIRTH MAY HELP TO IDENTIFY WOMEN AT RISK OF PRETERM BIRTH, AND ULTIMATELY LEAD TO DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PRETERM BIRTH PREVENTION MEASURES.	2016	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
6 5169  44 PRECONCEPTIONAL STRESS AND RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH: AN OVERVIEW. OBJECTIVE: WE REVIEWED THE EVIDENCE FOR THREE THEORIES OF HOW PRECONCEPTIONAL PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESS COULD ACT AS A CONTRIBUTING DETERMINANT OF EXCESS PRETERM BIRTH RISK AMONG AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN: EARLY LIFE DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY AND EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING OF ADULT NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEMS; BLUNTING, WEATHERING, OR DYSFUNCTION OF NEUROENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE FUNCTION IN RESPONSE TO CHRONIC STRESS ACTIVATION THROUGH THE LIFE COURSE; INDIVIDUALS' ADOPTION OF RISKY BEHAVIORS SUCH AS SMOKING AS A RESPONSE TO STRESSFUL STIMULI. METHODS: BASIC SCIENCE, CLINICAL, AND EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES INDEXED IN MEDLINE AND WEB OF SCIENCE DATABASES ON PRECONCEPTIONAL PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESS, PRETERM BIRTH AND RACE WERE REVIEWED. RESULTS: MIXED EVIDENCE LEANS TOWARDS MODEST ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN PRECONCEPTIONAL CHRONIC STRESS AND PRETERM BIRTH (FOR EXAMPLE COMMON ODDS RATIOS OF 1.2-1.4), PARTICULARLY IN AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN, BUT IT IS UNCLEAR WHETHER THIS ASSOCIATION IS CAUSAL OR EXPLAINS A SUBSTANTIAL PORTION OF THE BLACK-WHITE RACIAL DISPARITY IN PRETERM BIRTH. THE STRESS-PRETERM BIRTH ASSOCIATION MAY BE MEDIATED BY HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL AXIS DYSFUNCTION AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS, ALTHOUGH THESE MECHANISMS ARE INCOMPLETELY UNDERSTOOD. EVIDENCE FOR THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC OR EARLY LIFE PROGRAMMING AS A DETERMINANT OF RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH RISK IS MORE CIRCUMSTANTIAL. CONCLUSIONS: PRECONCEPTIONAL STRESS, DIRECTLY OR IN INTERACTION WITH HOST GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY OR INFECTION, REMAINS AN IMPORTANT HYPOTHESIZED RISK FACTOR FOR UNDERSTANDING AND REDUCING RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH. FUTURE STUDIES THAT INTEGRATE ADEQUATELY SIZED EPIDEMIOLOGIC SAMPLES WITH MEASURES OF STRESS, INFECTION, AND GENE EXPRESSION, WILL ADVANCE OUR KNOWLEDGE AND ALLOW DEVELOPMENT OF TARGETED INTERVENTIONS.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
7 1755  38 EARLY NUTRITION AND LATER OUTCOMES IN PRETERM INFANTS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE IS AN EMERGING AREA OF INTEREST THAT AMALGAMATES MANY AREAS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES AND ENCOMPASSES A WIDE RANGE OF DIVERSE DISCIPLINES FROM EPIDEMIOLOGY TO MOLECULAR BIOLOGY. EVIDENCE HAS ACCUMULATED TO SHOW THAT EARLY LIFE EXPERIENCES, BOTH IN UTERO AND IN INFANCY HAVE LONG-TERM EFFECTS ON MANY BODY SYSTEMS. THERE ARE NOW GOOD DATA TO SHOW THAT SUBOPTIMAL IN UTERO GROWTH, ESPECIALLY WHEN COMBINED WITH RAPID GROWTH ACCELERATION IN EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE MAY INCREASE THE RISK OF LATER LIFE METABOLIC DISEASE. THE MECHANISMS ARE COMPLEX BUT LIKELY TO INVOLVE EPIGENETIC MARKS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION. PRETERM INFANTS FREQUENTLY EXPERIENCE SUBOPTIMAL NUTRIENT INTAKES IN EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE AND EXHIBIT GROWTH FAILURE WITHIN THE NICU. THEY ALSO RECEIVE PRODUCTS THAT MAY NOT PROVIDE EITHER AN OPTIMAL QUANTITY OR QUALITY OF NUTRIENTS. FOLLOW-UP STUDIES HAVE NOW SHOWN MUCH HIGHER RISKS FOR LONG-TERM CHRONIC DISEASE IN CHILDREN AND ADULTS WHO WERE BORN PRETERM. THERE ARE HIGHER LEVELS OF INSULIN RESISTANCE AND ABNORMAL PARTITIONING OF FAT DEPOSITION. THE ONSET OF PUBERTY SEEMS EARLIER, AVERAGE HEIGHT IS LESS AND BLOOD PRESSURE, MEASURES OF VASCULAR HEALTH AND LIPID PROFILES SUGGEST CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH IS LIKELY TO DIFFER FROM HEALTHY TERM BORN CONTROLS. DESPITE THIS, THERE ARE NO DATA TO SUGGEST AN OVERALL BENEFIT OF LIMITING NUTRIENT INTAKE, OR RESTRICTING GROWTH IN PRETERM INFANTS. THERE ARE STRONG DATA TO SHOW THAT THE PRETERM BRAIN IS EXQUISITELY VULNERABLE TO UNDERNUTRITION, AND THAT SUBOPTIMAL NUTRIENT INTAKES MAY PERMANENTLY AFFECT LATER COGNITIVE ATTAINMENT. A CLINICAL FOCUS ON EARLY NUTRIENT INTAKES AND BREAST MILK PROVISION IS KEY TO OPTIMISING LONG-TERM HEALTH OUTCOMES.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
8 5680  37 SHORT- AND LONG-TERM OUTCOMES OF PREECLAMPSIA IN OFFSPRING: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. PREECLAMPSIA IS A MULTISYSTEMIC CLINICAL SYNDROME CHARACTERIZED BY THE APPEARANCE OF NEW-ONSET HYPERTENSION AND PROTEINURIA OR HYPERTENSION AND END ORGAN DYSFUNCTION EVEN WITHOUT PROTEINURIA AFTER 20 WEEKS OF PREGNANCY OR POSTPARTUM. RESIDING AT THE SEVERE END OF THE SPECTRUM OF THE HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY, PREECLAMPSIA OCCURS IN 3 TO 8% OF PREGNANCIES WORLDWIDE AND IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF MATERNAL AND PERINATAL MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY, ACCOUNTING FOR 8-10% OF ALL PRETERM BIRTHS. THE MECHANISM WHEREBY PREECLAMPSIA INCREASES THE RISK OF THE NEURODEVELOPMENTAL, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND METABOLIC MORBIDITY OF THE MOTHER'S OFFSPRING IS NOT WELL KNOWN, BUT IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE PREECLAMPTIC ENVIRONMENT INDUCES EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT ADVERSELY AFFECT DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY. THESE DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES ARE CRUCIAL FOR OPTIMAL FETAL GROWTH AND SURVIVAL BUT MAY LEAD TO AN INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC MORBIDITY IN CHILDHOOD AND EVEN LATER IN LIFE. THE AIM OF THIS REVIEW IS TO SUMMARIZE BOTH THE SHORT- AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PREECLAMPSIA ON OFFSPRING BASED ON THE CURRENT LITERATURE.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
9 1370  40 DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE THEORY IN CARDIOLOGY. NUMEROUS EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES DISCLOSED THAT BIRTH WEIGHT IS INVERSELY ASSOCIATED WITH THE INCIDENCE OF THE LIFESTYLE-RELATED DISORDERS IN ADULT LIFE, SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, DIABETES, AND /OR CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. LOWER BIRTH WEIGHT OCCURS IN NUMEROUS UNDESIRED INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENTS INCLUDING MALNUTRITION, SMOKING, ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION, OR STRESS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) THEORY IS BASED ON THE CONCEPT THAT THE ORIGINS OF LIFESTYLE-RELATED DISEASE IS FORMED AT THE TIME OF FERTILIZATION, EMBRYONIC, FETAL, AND NEONATAL STAGES BY THE INTERRELATION BETWEEN GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENTS (NUTRITION, STRESS, OR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS). ADULT DISEASE DEVELOPS AFTER DELIVERY FACING TO ABNORMAL ENVIRONMENTS SUCH AS OVER-NUTRITION, MUCH STRESS, OR LACK OF EXERCISE. DISEASE DEVELOPS THROUGH THESE TWO INSULTS. THIS CONCEPT WAS FIRST PROPOSED AS THE "BARKER HYPOTHESIS." DAVID BARKER HAD DISCOVERED THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LOWER BIRTH WEIGHT AND THE HIGHER PREVALENCE OF ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE MORTALITY. PREVIOUS EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES HAVE FOUND THE PEOPLE EXPOSED TO FAMINE DURING EARLY LIFE HAD HIGHER RISKS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. YET, THE EXACT MECHANISMS THAT PERMANENTLY CHANGE THE STRUCTURE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND ENDOCRINE STATUS OF AN INDIVIDUAL ACROSS THEIR LIFESPAN FOLLOWING ALTERED GROWTH DURING FETAL LIFE ARE NOT ENTIRELY CLEAR. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES INCLUDING PROSPECTIVE COHORT AND OBSERVATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE PEOPLE EXPOSED TO MALNUTRITION DURING FETAL OR INFANCY HAVE DISCLOSED THE STRONG RELATION BETWEEN THE LOWER BIRTH WEIGHT AND THE HIGHER CARDIOVASCULAR RISKS IN ADULTS. RECENT PROGRESS OF EPIGENETIC STUDIES UNVEILED STRONG GENETIC ASSOCIATION. HORMONAL REGULATION AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS HAVE AN IMPORTANT ROLE FOR PROPER ORGAN DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS. THE MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF PREDISPOSITION IS SUPPOSED TO BE THE EPIGENETICS MODIFICATIONS. THEIR DYSREGULATION IS RELATED TO THE ACQUISITION OF THE DISEASE-SUSCEPTIBLE TRAIT. IN THIS REVIEW, WE OVERVIEW THE CONCEPT OF DOHAD AND INTRODUCE RELATED CLINICAL AND BASIC RESEARCH.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
10 6234  34 THE LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ON GROWTH AND METABOLISM. PEOPLE WHO WERE SMALL AT BIRTH AND HAD POOR INFANT GROWTH HAVE AN INCREASED RISK OF ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, OSTEOPOROSIS, AND TYPE 2 DIABETES, PARTICULARLY IF THEIR RESTRICTED EARLY GROWTH WAS FOLLOWED BY INCREASED CHILDHOOD WEIGHT GAIN. THESE RELATIONS EXTEND ACROSS THE NORMAL RANGE OF BIRTH SIZE IN A GRADED MANNER, SO REDUCED SIZE IS NOT A PREREQUISITE. IN ADDITION, LARGER BIRTH SIZE IS ASSOCIATED WITH RISKS OF OBESITY AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. THE ASSOCIATIONS APPEAR TO REFLECT DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTIC RESPONSES MADE BY THE FETUS AND INFANT BASED ON CUES ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT, INFLUENCED BY MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING DIET, BODY COMPOSITION, STRESS, AND EXERCISE LEVELS. THESE RESPONSES INVOLVE EPIGENETIC PROCESSES THAT MODIFY THE OFFSPRING'S PHENOTYPE. VULNERABILITY TO ILL HEALTH RESULTS IF THE ENVIRONMENT IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, AND LATER LIFE IS MISMATCHED TO THE PHENOTYPE INDUCED IN DEVELOPMENT, INFORMED BY THE DEVELOPMENTAL CUES. THIS MISMATCH MAY ARISE THROUGH UNBALANCED DIET OR BODY COMPOSITION OF THE MOTHER OR A CHANGE IN LIFESTYLE FACTORS BETWEEN GENERATIONS. THESE INSIGHTS OFFER NEW POSSIBILITIES FOR THE EARLY DIAGNOSIS AND PREVENTION OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
11 6088  45 THE EFFECTS OF ASSISTED REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES ON METABOLIC HEALTH AND DISEASEDAGGER. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF METABOLIC DISEASES PLACES A SUBSTANTIAL BURDEN ON HUMAN HEALTH THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. IT IS BELIEVED THAT PREDISPOSITION TO METABOLIC DISEASE STARTS EARLY IN LIFE, A PERIOD OF GREAT SUSCEPTIBILITY TO EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS. ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART), I.E., TREATMENTS FOR INFERTILITY, MAY AFFECT EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT, RESULTING IN MULTIPLE ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES IN POSTNATAL LIFE. THE MOST FREQUENTLY OBSERVED ALTERATION IN ART PREGNANCIES IS IMPAIRED PLACENTAL NUTRIENT TRANSFER. MOREOVER, CONSEQUENT INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT FOLLOWED BY CATCH-UP GROWTH CAN ALL PREDICT FUTURE OBESITY, INSULIN RESISTANCE, AND CHRONIC METABOLIC DISEASES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HAVE FOCUSED ON EVIDENCE OF ADVERSE METABOLIC ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ART, WHICH CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC ADULT-ONSET DISEASES, SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME, TYPE 2 DIABETES, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. DUE TO HIGH PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY, ART PREGNANCIES CAN PRODUCE BOTH OFFSPRING WITH ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES, AS WELL AS HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS. WE FURTHER DISCUSS THE SEX-SPECIFIC AND AGE-DEPENDENT METABOLIC ALTERATIONS REFLECTED IN ART OFFSPRING, AND HOW THE DEGREE OF INTERFERENCE OF A GIVEN ART PROCEDURE (FROM MILD TO MORE SEVERE MANIPULATION OF THE EGG) AFFECTS THE OCCURRENCE AND DEGREE OF OFFSPRING ALTERATIONS. OVER THE LAST FEW YEARS, STUDIES HAVE REPORTED SIGNS OF CARDIOMETABOLIC ALTERATIONS IN ART OFFSPRING THAT ARE DETECTABLE AT A YOUNG AGE BUT THAT DO NOT APPEAR TO CONSTITUTE A HIGH RISK OF DISEASE AND MORBIDITY PER SE. THESE ABNORMAL PHENOTYPES COULD BE EARLY INDICATORS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC DISEASES, INCLUDING METABOLIC SYNDROME, IN ADULTHOOD. THE EARLY DETECTION OF METABOLIC ALTERATIONS COULD CONTRIBUTE TO PREVENTING THE ONSET OF DISEASE IN ADULTHOOD. SUCH EARLY INTERVENTIONS MAY COUNTERACT THE RISK FACTORS AND IMPROVE THE LONG-TERM HEALTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
12 4078  39 MATERNAL INFLAMMATION, GROWTH RETARDATION, AND PRETERM BIRTH: INSIGHTS INTO ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. THE "FETAL ORIGIN OF ADULT DISEASE HYPOTHESIS" ORIGINALLY DESCRIBED BY BARKER ET AL. IDENTIFIED THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMPAIRED IN UTERO GROWTH AND ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK AND DEATH. SINCE THEN, NUMEROUS CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES HAVE CONFIRMED THAT EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES CAN LEAD TO CARDIOVASCULAR, PULMONARY, METABOLIC, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISEASES DURING ADULTHOOD WITH AND WITHOUT ALTERATIONS IN BIRTH WEIGHT. THIS SO CALLED "FETAL PROGRAMMING" INCLUDES DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION, IMMEDIATE ADAPTATION, OR PREDICTIVE ADAPTATION AND CAN LEAD TO EPIGENETIC CHANGES AFFECTING A SPECIFIC ORGAN OR OVERALL HEALTH. THE INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENT IS DRAMATICALLY IMPACTED BY THE OVERALL MATERNAL HEALTH. BOTH PREMATURE BIRTH OR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT CAN RESULT FROM A VARIETY OF MATERNAL CONDITIONS INCLUDING UNDERNUTRITION OR DYSNUTRITION, METABOLIC DISEASES, CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESSES INDUCED BY INFECTIONS AND INFLAMMATION, AS WELL AS HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA AND SMOKING. NUMEROUS ANIMAL STUDIES HAVE SUPPORTED THE IMPORTANCE OF BOTH MATERNAL HEALTH AND MATERNAL ENVIRONMENT ON THE LONG TERM OUTCOMES OF THE OFFSPRING. WITH INCREASING RATES OF OBESITY AND DIABETES AND SURVIVAL OF PRETERM INFANTS BORN AT EARLY GESTATIONAL AGES, THE NEED TO ELUCIDATE MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROGRAMMING OF ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE TREATMENT OF UPCOMING GENERATIONS.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
13 2805  38 FETAL MALNUTRITION AND LONG-TERM OUTCOMES. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT LOWER BIRTHWEIGHT IS ASSOCIATED WITH A WIDE RANGE OF ADVERSE OUTCOMES IN LATER LIFE, INCLUDING POORER 'HUMAN CAPITAL' (SHORTER STATURE, LOWER COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE), INCREASED RISK FACTORS FOR LATER DISEASE (HIGHER BLOOD PRESSURE AND REDUCED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE, AND LUNG, KIDNEY AND IMMUNE FUNCTION), CLINICAL DISEASE (DIABETES, CORONARY HEART DISEASE, CHRONIC LUNG AND KIDNEY DISEASE), AND INCREASED ALL-CAUSE AND CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY. HIGHER BIRTHWEIGHT IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF CANCER AND (IF CAUSED BY GESTATIONAL DIABETES) OBESITY AND DIABETES. THE 'DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE' HYPOTHESIS PROPOSES THAT FETAL NUTRITION HAS PERMANENT EFFECTS ON GROWTH, STRUCTURE AND METABOLISM ('PROGRAMMING'). THIS IS SUPPORTED BY STUDIES IN ANIMALS SHOWING THAT MATERNAL UNDER- AND OVERNUTRITION DURING PREGNANCY CAN PRODUCE SIMILAR ABNORMALITIES IN THE ADULT OFFSPRING. COMMON CHRONIC DISEASES COULD POTENTIALLY BE PREVENTED BY ACHIEVING OPTIMAL FETAL NUTRITION, AND THIS COULD HAVE ADDITIONAL BENEFITS FOR SURVIVAL AND HUMAN CAPITAL. RECENT FOLLOW-UP OF CHILDREN BORN AFTER RANDOMIZED NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTIONS IN PREGNANCY PROVIDES WEAK EVIDENCE OF BENEFICIAL EFFECTS ON GROWTH, VASCULAR FUNCTION, LIPID CONCENTRATIONS, GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND INSULIN RESISTANCE. ANIMAL STUDIES INDICATE THAT EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA MAY BE AN IMPORTANT MECHANISM UNDERLYING PROGRAMMING, AND THAT NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTIONS MAY NEED TO START PRECONCEPTIONALLY.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
14 3582  29 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
15 6781  65 [BREATHING: AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH - PART III]. THE THIRD PART OF THE DGP STATEMENT INTRODUCES THE CURRENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE ON LESS STUDIED HEALTH OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION: THE NEGATIVE IMPACT ON METABOLISM LEADING TO IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND DIABETES AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND DELAYED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN CHILDREN. FURTHERMORE, PRENATAL EXPOSURE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON MOTHER AND CHILD ARE ADDRESSED. FINALLY, THE CURRENTLY DISCUSSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ARE DESCRIBED.DIFFERING, BUT OFTEN COMPLEMENTARY BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CREATE THE BASIS FOR THE DIVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES CAUSED BY AIR POLLUTION. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND A SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IN THE LUNGS AND ON A SYSTEMIC LEVEL ("LOW-GRADE SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION") ARE CONSIDERED TO BE KEY MECHANISMS. THEY PROMOTE SECONDARY ALTERATIONS IN THE BODY, SUCH AS VASCULAR OR METABOLIC PROCESSES, AND MAY ALSO RESULT IN THE CURRENTLY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA OR NEUROINFLAMMATION. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLUBLE PARTICULATE MATTER AND THE ROLE OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES TRANSLOCATED ACROSS BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES INTO BLOOD VESSEL AND TRANSPORTED VIA THE CIRCULATION TO SECONDARY TARGET ORGANS, SUCH AS LIVER, BRAIN OR THE FETUS, ARE INTENSIVELY DISCUSSED.DIABETES IS ONE OF THE LEADING CHRONIC DISEASES WORLDWIDE, WITH A PREVALENCE OF ALMOST 14 % IN GERMANY. ALTHOUGH LIFESTYLE FACTORS ARE THE MAIN CAUSES, CURRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION MAY ADDITIONALLY INCREASE THE RISK FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR A CAUSAL ROLE OF AIR POLLUTION IS PROVIDED BY STUDIES ADDRESSING THE REGULATION OF THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS IN METABOLICALLY HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS, INSULIN SENSITIVITY, OR PREGNANCY-RELATED DIABETES. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES PROVIDE FURTHER SUPPORT FOR PLAUSIBLE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, PROSPECTIVE STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO GAIN MORE EVIDENCE, TAKING MULTIPLE LIFESTYLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SUCH AS GREEN SPACE AND NOISE, AND AN IMPROVED INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT INTO ACCOUNT.THE AGING POPULATION HAS AN INCREASED RISK OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. FIRST STUDIES POINT TOWARDS A CONTRIBUTION OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, SPECIFICALLY BY PARTICULATE MATTER. SEVERAL STUDIES REPORT ITS ASSOCIATION WITH DECREASED NEUROCOGNITIVE CAPACITY OR AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DEMENTIA OR ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADULTS. HOWEVER, THE STUDIES ARE INHOMOGENEOUS REGARDING DESIGN, EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT RESULTS. WITH RESPECT TO THE INFLUENCE ON NEUROCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN, FIRST STUDIES SUGGEST AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION, E. G. AT SCHOOL, AND DELAYED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.EVEN THOUGH THE EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS DURING PREGNANCY IS STILL HETEROGENEOUS, THE STUDIES GENERALLY POINT TOWARDS AN ADVERSE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL AND FETAL ORGANISMS. THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE EXISTS FOR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, WITH SMALL EFFECT SIZES OF ONLY SOME GRAMS, AND FOR A HIGHER INCIDENCE OF REDUCED BIRTH WEIGHT (< 2500 G). AN INCREASED RISK FOR GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION AND PREECLAMPSIA UNDERSCORES THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL ORGANISM. HOWEVER, THE CURRENT BODY OF EVIDENCE DOES NOT YET ALLOW A FINAL CONCLUSION ON THE INFLUENCE OF INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION REGARDING EARLY CHILDHOOD LUNG FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGIES, PARTICULARLY IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS HARD TO DISTINGUISH IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POSTNATAL EXPOSURE.	2019	

16 2802  35 FETAL AND INFANT ORIGINS OF ASTHMA. PREVIOUS STUDIES HAVE SUGGESTED THAT ASTHMA, LIKE OTHER COMMON DISEASES, HAS AT LEAST PART OF ITS ORIGIN EARLY IN LIFE. LOW BIRTH WEIGHT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISKS OF ASTHMA, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE AIRWAY DISEASE, AND IMPAIRED LUNG FUNCTION IN ADULTS, AND INCREASED RISKS OF RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD. THE DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY HYPOTHESIS SUGGESTS THAT THE ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND DISEASES IN LATER LIFE ARE EXPLAINED BY ADAPTATION MECHANISMS IN FETAL LIFE AND INFANCY IN RESPONSE TO VARIOUS ADVERSE EXPOSURES. VARIOUS PATHWAYS LEADING FROM ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT EXPOSURES TO GROWTH ADAPTATIONS AND RESPIRATORY HEALTH OUTCOMES HAVE BEEN STUDIED, INCLUDING FETAL AND EARLY INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS, MATERNAL SMOKING AND DIET, CHILDREN'S DIET, RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS AND ACETAMINOPHEN USE, AND GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY. STILL, THE SPECIFIC ADVERSE EXPOSURES IN FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE LEADING TO RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE ARE NOT YET FULLY UNDERSTOOD. CURRENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT BOTH ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENETIC FACTORS IN VARIOUS PERIODS OF LIFE, AND THEIR EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MAY UNDERLIE THE COMPLEX ASSOCIATIONS OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN LATER LIFE. NEW WELL-DESIGNED EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC UNDERLYING MECHANISMS. THIS REVIEW IS FOCUSED ON SPECIFIC ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS AND EXPOSURES, GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY, POSSIBLE RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES FOR NEW STUDIES.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
17 3577  45 IMPACT OF NUTRITION ON TELOMERE HEALTH: SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF OBSERVATIONAL COHORT STUDIES AND RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIALS. DIET, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND OTHER LIFESTYLE FACTORS HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF SEVERAL CHRONIC DISEASES, BUT ALSO IN A LOWER TOTAL MORTALITY AND LONGER LIFE EXPECTANCY. ONE OF THE MECHANISMS IN WHICH DIET CAN REDUCE THE RISK OF DISEASE IS WITH REGARD TO ITS IMPACT ON TELOMERES. TELOMERE LENGTH (TL) IS HIGHLY CORRELATED TO CHRONOLOGICAL AGE AND METABOLIC STATUS. INDIVIDUALS WITH SHORTER TELOMERES ARE AT HIGHER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASES AND MORTALITY. DIET MAY INFLUENCE TL BY SEVERAL MECHANISMS SUCH AS REGULATING OXIDATIVE STRESS AND INFLAMMATION OR MODULATING EPIGENETIC REACTIONS. THE PRESENT SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AIMS TO EXAMINE THE RESULTS FROM EPIDEMIOLOGIC AND CLINICAL TRIALS CONDUCTED IN HUMANS EVALUATING THE ROLE OF NUTRIENTS, FOOD GROUPS, AND DIETARY PATTERNS ON TL. WE ALSO DISCUSS THE POSSIBLE MECHANISMS OF ACTION THAT INFLUENCE THIS PROCESS, WITH THE PERSPECTIVE THAT TL COULD BE A NOVEL BIOMARKER INDICATING THE RISK OF METABOLIC DISTURBANCES AND AGE-RELATED DISEASES. THE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT SOME ANTIOXIDANT NUTRIENTS, THE CONSUMPTION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, AND MEDITERRANEAN DIET ARE MAINLY ASSOCIATED WITH LONGER TELOMERES. HOWEVER, MOST OF THE EVIDENCE IS BASED ON HIGH HETEROGENIC OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES AND VERY FEW RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIALS (RCTS). THEREFORE, THE ASSOCIATIONS SUMMARIZED IN THE PRESENT REVIEW NEED TO BE CONFIRMED WITH LARGER PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDIES AND BETTER-DESIGNED RCTS.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
18 6554  34 TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS ON AGING AND DISEASE INCIDENCE. ADVERSE EARLY LIFE EXPERIENCES ARE MAJOR INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES WITH POTENTIALLY LIFE-LONG CONSEQUENCES. PRENATAL OR EARLY POSTNATAL EXPOSURE TO STRESS, UNDERNUTRITION OR ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS MAY REPROGRAM BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND INCREASE RISK OF BEHAVIOURAL AND NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS LATER IN LIFE. NOT ONLY EXPERIENCE WITHIN A SINGLE LIFETIME, BUT ALSO ANCESTRAL EXPERIENCE AFFECTS HEALTH TRAJECTORIES AND CHANCES OF SUCCESSFUL AGING. THE CENTRAL MECHANISM IN TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING OF A DISEASE MAY BE THE FORMATION OF EPIGENETIC MEMORY. THIS REVIEW EXPLORES TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF EARLY ADVERSE EXPERIENCE ON HEALTH AND DISEASE INCIDENCE IN OLDER AGE. FIRST, WE ADDRESS MECHANISMS OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING OF DISEASE AND INHERITANCE. SECOND, WE DISCUSS EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL FINDINGS LINKING EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS TO ADVERSE AGING TRAJECTORIES IN ASSOCIATION WITH POSSIBLE PARENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS AND SEX-SPECIFIC EFFECTS. THIRD, WE OUTLINE THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF AGE-RELATED FUNCTIONAL DECLINE AND SUGGEST POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS TO REVERSE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING. THUS, STRATEGIES THAT SUPPORT HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT AND SUCCESSFUL AGING SHOULD TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE POTENTIAL INFLUENCES OF TRANSGENERATIONAL INHERITANCE.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
19  625  40 BIOLOGICAL AGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS FOR DEMENTIA AND STROKE: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS. SINCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIBIOTICS AND VACCINATION, AS WELL AS MAJOR IMPROVEMENTS IN PUBLIC HYGIENE, THE MAIN RISK FACTORS FOR MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY ARE AGE AND CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, BOTH OF WHICH CAN INTERACT WITH GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS. AS THE AVERAGE AGE OF THE POPULATION INCREASES, THE PREVALENCE AND COSTS OF CHRONIC DISEASES, ESPECIALLY NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS, ARE RAPIDLY INCREASING. THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF AGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS, DEVELOP CHRONICALLY OVER RELATIVELY LONG PERIODS OF TIME, IN CONTRAST TO THE RELATIVELY RAPID DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES OR ACCIDENTS. OF PARTICULAR INTEREST IS THE HYPOTHESIS THAT THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS MAY BE MEDIATED BY ACCELERATION OF BIOLOGICAL AGE. THIS HYPOTHESIS IS SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE THAT DIETARY RESTRICTION, WHICH UNIVERSALLY DELAYS AGE-RELATED DISEASES, ALSO AMELIORATES DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. CONVERSELY, BOTH AGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACCUMULATION OF SOMATIC MUTATIONS IN MITOTIC CELLS AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS THAT ARE A MEASURE OF "BIOLOGICAL AGE", A BETTER PREDICTOR OF AGE-RELATED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY THAN CHRONOLOGICAL AGE. HERE WE REVIEW EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS SUCH AS SMOKING AND AIR POLLUTION MAY ALSO DRIVE NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS, INCLUDING ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, BY THE ACCELERATION OF BIOLOGICAL AGE, MEDIATED BY CUMULATIVE AND PERSISTENT EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AS WELL AS SOMATIC MUTATIONS. ELUCIDATION OF SUCH MECHANISMS COULD PLAUSIBLY ALLOW THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERVENTIONS WHICH DELAY DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF BOTH AGING AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
20 5089  40 PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS TO MICRONUTRIENT DYSREGULATION IN THE PROGRAMMING OF CHRONIC DISEASE. POOR NUTRITION DURING PREGNANCY IS KNOWN TO IMPAIR FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND INCREASE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE IN OFFSPRING. BOTH MACRONUTRIENTS AND MICRONUTRIENTS ARE REQUIRED FOR A HEALTHY PREGNANCY ALTHOUGH SIGNIFICANTLY LESS IS UNDERSTOOD ABOUT THE ROLE OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN THE PROGRAMMING OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THIS IS DESPITE THE FACT THAT MODERN CALORIE RICH DIETS ARE OFTEN ALSO DEFICIENT IN KEY MICRONUTRIENTS. THE IMPORTANCE OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN GESTATIONAL DISORDERS IS CLEARLY UNDERSTOOD BUT HOW THEY IMPACT LONG TERM DISEASE IN HUMANS REQUIRES FURTHER INVESTIGATION. IN CONTRAST, ANIMAL STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED HOW DIETS HIGH OR LOW IN SPECIFIC MICRONUTRIENTS INFLUENCE OFFSPRING PHYSIOLOGY. MANY OF THESE STUDIES HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PLACENTA IN DETERMINING DISEASE RISK. THIS REVIEW WILL EXPLORE THE EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL VITAMINS, MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS ON OFFSPRING DISEASE OUTCOMES AND DISCUSS SEVERAL KEY PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY MULTIPLE MICRONUTRIENTS. THESE PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS INCLUDE MICRONUTRIENT INDUCED DYSREGULATION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS, ALTERED METHYL DONOR AVAILABILITY AND ITS IMPACT ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AS WELL AS ENDOCRINE DYSFUNCTION. CRITICAL GAPS IN OUR CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT MICRONUTRIENTS AT DIFFERENT GESTATIONAL AGES WILL ALSO BE HIGHLIGHTED. FINALLY, THIS REVIEW WILL DISCUSS THE NEED FOR FURTHER STUDIES TO CHARACTERISE THE MICRONUTRIENT STATUS OF AUSTRALIAN WOMEN OF REPRODUCTIVE AGE AND CORRELATE MICRONUTRIENT STATUS TO PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS, PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS AND OFFSPRING DISEASE.	2018