1 5434 87 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN CHILDREN AND ADULT LUNG DISEASE: THE CASE FOR OUTDOOR EXPOSURES. THERE IS A GROWING UNDERSTANDING THAT CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASES IN ADULTS HAVE THEIR ORIGINS IN EARLY LIFE. ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES OCCURRING IN VULNERABLE PERIODS DURING LUNG GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE FETAL PERIOD AND IN EARLY CHILDHOOD THAT ALTER LUNG STRUCTURE AND LIMIT THE GROWTH IN LUNG FUNCTION MAY HAVE LIFELONG CONSEQUENCES. EVIDENCE IS INCREASING THAT EXPOSURE TO THE AMBIENT ENVIRONMENT, INCLUDING AIR POLLUTANTS, PERSISTENT TOXIC SUBSTANCES, WATER POLLUTANTS AND RESPIRATORY VIRAL INFECTIONS, CAN INHIBIT LUNG FUNCTION GROWTH AND PREDISPOSE TO CHRONIC NON-MALIGNANT LUNG DISEASES. THESE EXPOSURES GENERALLY INTERACT WITH A GENETIC PREDISPOSITION, AND GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS AND EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA ARE ATTRACTING CONSIDERABLE STUDY. AN UNDERSTANDING OF HOW AMBIENT EXPOSURES IMPACT ON NORMAL LUNG GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT WILL AID IN UNDERSTANDING OF HOW CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASES OF ADULTS DEVELOP AND MAY LEAD TO NEW PREVENTATIVE STRATEGIES.	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
2 3582 33 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
3 3771 33 INTER- AND TRANSGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE: EVIDENCE IN ASTHMA AND COPD? EVIDENCE IS NOW EMERGING THAT EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT CAN HAVE LIFELONG EFFECTS ON METABOLIC, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND PULMONARY FUNCTION IN OFFSPRING, A CONCEPT ALSO KNOWN AS FETAL OR DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING. IN MAMMALS, DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING IS THOUGHT TO OCCUR MAINLY VIA EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, WHICH INCLUDE DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND EXPRESSION OF NON-CODING RNAS. THE EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING CAN BE INDUCED BY THE INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENT, LEADING TO INTERGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC EFFECTS FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT. TRANSGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE MAY BE CONSIDERED WHEN DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS GENERATIONS THAT WERE NOT EXPOSED TO THE INITIAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH TRIGGERED THE CHANGE. SO FAR, INTER- AND TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING HAS BEEN MAINLY DESCRIBED FOR CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC DISEASE RISK. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS AVAILABLE EVIDENCE THAT EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE ALSO OCCURS IN RESPIRATORY DISEASES, USING ASTHMA AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD) AS EXAMPLES. WHILE MULTIPLE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AS WELL AS ANIMAL STUDIES DEMONSTRATE EFFECTS OF 'TOXIC' INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE ON VARIOUS ASTHMA-RELATED PHENOTYPES IN THE OFFSPRING, ONLY FEW STUDIES LINK EPIGENETIC MARKS TO THE OBSERVED PHENOTYPES. AS EPIGENETIC MARKS MAY DISTINGUISH INDIVIDUALS MOST AT RISK OF LATER DISEASE AT EARLY AGE, IT WILL ENABLE EARLY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES TO REDUCE SUCH RISKS. TO ACHIEVE THIS GOAL FURTHER, WELL DESIGNED EXPERIMENTAL AND HUMAN STUDIES ARE NEEDED.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
4 5254 39 PROGRAMMING OF RESPIRATORY HEALTH IN CHILDHOOD: INFLUENCE OF OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION. PURPOSE OF REVIEW: THIS OVERVIEW HIGHLIGHTS RECENT EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE PROGRAMMING EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION EXPOSURES DURING EARLY DEVELOPMENT ON LUNG FUNCTION AND CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISORDERS, SUCH AS ASTHMA AND RELATED ALLERGIC DISORDERS. RECENT FINDINGS: AIR POLLUTANTS MAY IMPACT ANATOMY AND/OR PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING OF THE LUNG AND INTERRELATED SYSTEMS. PROGRAMMING EFFECTS MAY RESULT FROM POLLUTANT-INDUCED SHIFTS IN A NUMBER OF MOLECULAR, CELLULAR, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES AND THEIR INTERACTING SYSTEMS. SPECIFIC KEY REGULATORY SYSTEMS SUSCEPTIBLE TO PROGRAMMING MAY INFLUENCE LUNG DEVELOPMENT AND VULNERABILITY TO RESPIRATORY DISEASES, INCLUDING BOTH CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL COMPONENTS OF NEUROENDOCRINE PATHWAYS AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) FUNCTIONING WHICH, IN TURN, INFLUENCE THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. STARTING IN UTERO, ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, INCLUDING AIR POLLUTANTS, MAY PERMANENTLY ORGANIZE THESE SYSTEMS TOWARD TRAJECTORIES OF ENHANCED PEDIATRIC (E.G., ASTHMA, ALLERGY) AS WELL AS ADULT DISEASE RISK (E.G., CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE). EVIDENCE SUPPORTS A CENTRAL ROLE OF OXIDATIVE STRESS IN THE TOXIC EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH SUGGESTS XENOBIOTIC METABOLISM AND SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS, SUCH AS MITOCHONDRIA ARE TARGETS OF AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND PLAY A ROLE IN ASTHMA AND ALLERGY PROGRAMMING. MECHANISMS OPERATING AT THE LEVEL OF THE PLACENTA ARE BEING ELUCIDATED. EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MAY BE AT THE ROOTS OF ADAPTIVE DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING. SUMMARY: OPTIMAL COORDINATED FUNCTIONING OF MANY COMPLEX PROCESSES AND THEIR NETWORKS OF INTERACTION ARE NECESSARY FOR NORMAL LUNG DEVELOPMENT AND THE MAINTENANCE OF RESPIRATORY HEALTH. OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION MAY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN EARLY PROGRAMMING OF RESPIRATORY HEALTH AND IS POTENTIALLY AMENABLE TO INTERVENTION.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
5 2802 42 FETAL AND INFANT ORIGINS OF ASTHMA. PREVIOUS STUDIES HAVE SUGGESTED THAT ASTHMA, LIKE OTHER COMMON DISEASES, HAS AT LEAST PART OF ITS ORIGIN EARLY IN LIFE. LOW BIRTH WEIGHT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISKS OF ASTHMA, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE AIRWAY DISEASE, AND IMPAIRED LUNG FUNCTION IN ADULTS, AND INCREASED RISKS OF RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD. THE DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY HYPOTHESIS SUGGESTS THAT THE ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND DISEASES IN LATER LIFE ARE EXPLAINED BY ADAPTATION MECHANISMS IN FETAL LIFE AND INFANCY IN RESPONSE TO VARIOUS ADVERSE EXPOSURES. VARIOUS PATHWAYS LEADING FROM ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT EXPOSURES TO GROWTH ADAPTATIONS AND RESPIRATORY HEALTH OUTCOMES HAVE BEEN STUDIED, INCLUDING FETAL AND EARLY INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS, MATERNAL SMOKING AND DIET, CHILDREN'S DIET, RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS AND ACETAMINOPHEN USE, AND GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY. STILL, THE SPECIFIC ADVERSE EXPOSURES IN FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE LEADING TO RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE ARE NOT YET FULLY UNDERSTOOD. CURRENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT BOTH ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENETIC FACTORS IN VARIOUS PERIODS OF LIFE, AND THEIR EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MAY UNDERLIE THE COMPLEX ASSOCIATIONS OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN LATER LIFE. NEW WELL-DESIGNED EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC UNDERLYING MECHANISMS. THIS REVIEW IS FOCUSED ON SPECIFIC ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS AND EXPOSURES, GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY, POSSIBLE RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES FOR NEW STUDIES.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
6 1938 33 EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVIDENCE FOR ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN EARLY LIFE AND EPIGENETIC VARIATION: A POTENTIAL LINK TO DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY? A GROWING BODY OF EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT THE RISK OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF A VARIETY OF HUMAN CHRONIC DISEASES DEPENDS ON EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS TRIGGERED BY ENVIRONMENTAL CUES DURING EARLY LIFE SENSITIVE STAGES. EXPOSURES TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SUCH AS ADVERSE NUTRITIONAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS, AS WELL AS POLLUTANTS AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN EARLY LIFE, HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE IMPORTANT DETERMINANTS OF EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING OF CHRONIC PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN HUMAN POPULATIONS. OVER THE PAST YEARS, IT HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY CLEAR DUE TO THE EPIGENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES (EWASS) THAT EARLY LIFE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS MAY TRIGGER WIDESPREAD AND PERSISTENT ALTERATIONS IN TRANSCRIPTIONAL PROFILING. SEVERAL CANDIDATE GENES HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED UNDERLYING THESE ASSOCIATIONS. IN THIS CONTEXT, DNA METHYLATION IS THE MOST INTENSIVELY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENON. IN THIS REVIEW, THE CLINICAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC FACTORS IN MEDIATING THE LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EXPERIENCES AND LONG-TERM HEALTH OUTCOMES ARE SUMMARIZED.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
7 2103 27 EPIGENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS HYPOTHESIS. EXTENSIVE HUMAN EPIDEMIOLOGIC AND ANIMAL MODEL DATA INDICATE THAT DURING CRITICAL PERIODS OF PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL MAMMALIAN DEVELOPMENT, NUTRITION AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI INFLUENCE DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS AND THEREBY INDUCE PERMANENT CHANGES IN METABOLISM AND CHRONIC DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY. THE BIOLOGIC MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THIS "DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS HYPOTHESIS" ARE POORLY UNDERSTOOD. THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE LIKELY INVOLVEMENT OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD). WE DESCRIBE PERMANENT EFFECTS OF TRANSIENT ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL ESTABLISHMENT OF EPIGENETIC GENE REGULATION AND EVIDENCE LINKING EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION WITH HUMAN DISEASE. WE PROPOSE A DEFINITION OF "EPIGENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY" AND DELINEATE HOW THIS EMERGING FIELD PROVIDES A BASIS FROM WHICH TO EXPLORE THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN DOHAD. WE SUGGEST STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE HUMAN EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES TO IDENTIFY CAUSAL ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN EARLY EXPOSURES, LONG-TERM CHANGES IN EPIGENETIC REGULATION, AND DISEASE, WHICH MAY ULTIMATELY ENABLE SPECIFIC EARLY-LIFE INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE HUMAN HEALTH.	2007	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
8 4626 35 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS: EPIGENETICS AS AN UNDERLYING MECHANISM. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS, ESPECIALLY AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS (ASD) AND ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD), CALLS FOR MORE RESEARCH INTO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ETIOLOGIC AND RISK FACTORS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) HYPOTHESIZES THAT THE ENVIRONMENT DURING FETAL AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT AFFECTS THE RISK FOR MANY CHRONIC DISEASES IN LATER STAGES OF LIFE, INCLUDING NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. EPIGENETICS, A TERM DESCRIBING MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE CHANGES IN THE CHROMOSOME STATE WITHOUT AFFECTING DNA SEQUENCES, IS SUGGESTED TO BE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM, ACCORDING TO THE DOHAD HYPOTHESIS. MOREOVER, MANY NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS ARE ALSO RELATED TO EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES. EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT EXPOSURE TO PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS IS ASSOCIATED WITH NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. IN ADDITION, THERE IS ALSO EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS CAN RESULT IN EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, NOTABLY DNA METHYLATION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE FIRST FOCUS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS, IN PARTICULAR MATERNAL SMOKING, PLASTIC-DERIVED CHEMICALS (BISPHENOL A AND PHTHALATES), PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS, AND HEAVY METALS. WE THEN REVIEW STUDIES SHOWING THE EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF THOSE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN HUMANS THAT MAY AFFECT NORMAL NEURODEVELOPMENT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
9 2495 35 EPIGENETICS AND DOHAD: FROM BASICS TO BIRTH AND BEYOND. DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) IS THE STUDY OF HOW THE EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT CAN IMPACT THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASES FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD AND THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS AND NON-CODING RNAS ARE INVOLVED IN MEDIATING HOW EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS LATER HEALTH. THIS REVIEW IS A SUMMARY OF THE EPIGENETICS AND DOHAD WORKSHOP HELD AT THE 2016 DOHAD SOCIETY OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND CONFERENCE. OUR EXTENSIVE KNOWLEDGE OF HOW THE EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS LATER RISK FOR CHRONIC DISEASE WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE WITHOUT ANIMAL MODELS. IN THIS REVIEW WE HIGHLIGHT SOME ANIMAL MODEL EXAMPLES THAT DEMONSTRATE HOW AN ADVERSE EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE RESULTS IN EPIGENETIC AND GENE EXPRESSION CHANGES THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE LATER IN LIFE. TYPE 2 DIABETES AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE ARE CHRONIC DISEASES WITH AN INCREASING INCIDENCE DUE TO THE INCREASED NUMBER OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS THAT ARE OBESE. EPIGENETIC CHANGES SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH METABOLIC HEALTH MEASURES AND POTENTIALLY PREDICT FUTURE METABOLIC HEALTH STATUS. ALTHOUGH MORE DIFFICULT TO ELUCIDATE IN HUMANS, RECENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT DNA METHYLATION MAY BE ONE OF THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT MEDIATES THE EFFECTS OF EARLY LIFE EXPOSURES ON LATER LIFE RISK OF OBESITY AND OBESITY RELATED DISEASES. FINALLY, WE DISCUSS THE ROLE OF THE MICROBIOME AND HOW IT IS A NEW PLAYER IN DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING AND MEDIATING EARLY LIFE EXPOSURES ON LATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
10 6781 39 [BREATHING: AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH - PART III]. THE THIRD PART OF THE DGP STATEMENT INTRODUCES THE CURRENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE ON LESS STUDIED HEALTH OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION: THE NEGATIVE IMPACT ON METABOLISM LEADING TO IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND DIABETES AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND DELAYED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN CHILDREN. FURTHERMORE, PRENATAL EXPOSURE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON MOTHER AND CHILD ARE ADDRESSED. FINALLY, THE CURRENTLY DISCUSSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ARE DESCRIBED.DIFFERING, BUT OFTEN COMPLEMENTARY BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CREATE THE BASIS FOR THE DIVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES CAUSED BY AIR POLLUTION. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND A SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IN THE LUNGS AND ON A SYSTEMIC LEVEL ("LOW-GRADE SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION") ARE CONSIDERED TO BE KEY MECHANISMS. THEY PROMOTE SECONDARY ALTERATIONS IN THE BODY, SUCH AS VASCULAR OR METABOLIC PROCESSES, AND MAY ALSO RESULT IN THE CURRENTLY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA OR NEUROINFLAMMATION. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLUBLE PARTICULATE MATTER AND THE ROLE OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES TRANSLOCATED ACROSS BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES INTO BLOOD VESSEL AND TRANSPORTED VIA THE CIRCULATION TO SECONDARY TARGET ORGANS, SUCH AS LIVER, BRAIN OR THE FETUS, ARE INTENSIVELY DISCUSSED.DIABETES IS ONE OF THE LEADING CHRONIC DISEASES WORLDWIDE, WITH A PREVALENCE OF ALMOST 14 % IN GERMANY. ALTHOUGH LIFESTYLE FACTORS ARE THE MAIN CAUSES, CURRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION MAY ADDITIONALLY INCREASE THE RISK FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR A CAUSAL ROLE OF AIR POLLUTION IS PROVIDED BY STUDIES ADDRESSING THE REGULATION OF THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS IN METABOLICALLY HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS, INSULIN SENSITIVITY, OR PREGNANCY-RELATED DIABETES. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES PROVIDE FURTHER SUPPORT FOR PLAUSIBLE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, PROSPECTIVE STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO GAIN MORE EVIDENCE, TAKING MULTIPLE LIFESTYLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SUCH AS GREEN SPACE AND NOISE, AND AN IMPROVED INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT INTO ACCOUNT.THE AGING POPULATION HAS AN INCREASED RISK OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. FIRST STUDIES POINT TOWARDS A CONTRIBUTION OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, SPECIFICALLY BY PARTICULATE MATTER. SEVERAL STUDIES REPORT ITS ASSOCIATION WITH DECREASED NEUROCOGNITIVE CAPACITY OR AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DEMENTIA OR ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADULTS. HOWEVER, THE STUDIES ARE INHOMOGENEOUS REGARDING DESIGN, EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT RESULTS. WITH RESPECT TO THE INFLUENCE ON NEUROCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN, FIRST STUDIES SUGGEST AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION, E. G. AT SCHOOL, AND DELAYED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.EVEN THOUGH THE EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS DURING PREGNANCY IS STILL HETEROGENEOUS, THE STUDIES GENERALLY POINT TOWARDS AN ADVERSE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL AND FETAL ORGANISMS. THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE EXISTS FOR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, WITH SMALL EFFECT SIZES OF ONLY SOME GRAMS, AND FOR A HIGHER INCIDENCE OF REDUCED BIRTH WEIGHT (< 2500 G). AN INCREASED RISK FOR GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION AND PREECLAMPSIA UNDERSCORES THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL ORGANISM. HOWEVER, THE CURRENT BODY OF EVIDENCE DOES NOT YET ALLOW A FINAL CONCLUSION ON THE INFLUENCE OF INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION REGARDING EARLY CHILDHOOD LUNG FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGIES, PARTICULARLY IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS HARD TO DISTINGUISH IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POSTNATAL EXPOSURE.	2019	

11 6064 34 THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF ADULT DISEASE. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL OBSERVATIONS HAVE LED TO THE HYPOTHESIS THAT THE RISK OF DEVELOPING SOME CHRONIC DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD IS INFLUENCED NOT ONLY BY GENETIC AND ADULT LIFESTYLE FACTORS, BUT ALSO BY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ACTING IN EARLY LIFE. THESE FACTORS ACT THROUGH THE PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY AND POSSIBLY EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION, AND CAN BE DISTINGUISHED FROM DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION. THE CONCEPT OF PREDICTIVE ADAPTATION HAS BEEN DEVELOPED TO EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND THE RISK OF LATER DISEASE. AT ITS BASE, THE MODEL SUGGESTS THAT A MISMATCH BETWEEN FETAL EXPECTATION OF ITS POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT AND ACTUAL POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT CONTRIBUTE TO LATER ADULT DISEASE RISK. THIS MISMATCH IS EXACERBATED, IN PART, BY THE PHENOMENON OF "MATERNAL CONSTRAINT" ON FETAL GROWTH, WHICH IMPLICITLY PROVIDES AN UPPER LIMIT OF POSTNATAL NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT THAT HUMANS HAVE ADAPTED FOR AND IS NOW FREQUENTLY EXCEEDED. THESE EXPERIMENTAL, CLINICAL AND CONCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS HAVE IMPORTANT IMPLICATIONS FOR PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION IN THE CURRENT EPIDEMIC OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY AND ADULT METABOLIC AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
12 6063 22 THE DEVELOPMENTAL ENVIRONMENT, EPIGENETIC BIOMARKERS AND LONG-TERM HEALTH. EVIDENCE FROM BOTH HUMAN AND ANIMAL STUDIES HAS SHOWN THAT THE PRENATAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTS INFLUENCE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CHRONIC DISEASE IN LATER LIFE AND SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETIC PROCESSES ARE AN IMPORTANT MECHANISM BY WHICH THE ENVIRONMENT ALTERS LONG-TERM DISEASE RISK. EPIGENETIC PROCESSES, INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION AND NON-CODING RNAS, PLAY A CENTRAL ROLE IN REGULATING GENE EXPRESSION. THE EPIGENOME IS HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN EARLY LIFE, SUCH AS NUTRITION, STRESS, ENDOCRINE DISRUPTION AND POLLUTION, AND CHANGES IN THE EPIGENOME CAN INDUCE LONG-TERM CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION AND PHENOTYPE. IN THIS REVIEW WE FOCUS ON HOW THE EARLY LIFE NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT CAN ALTER THE EPIGENOME LEADING TO AN ALTERED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DISEASE IN LATER LIFE.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
13  396 29 AN UPDATE ON EPIGENETICS AND CHILDHOOD RESPIRATORY DISEASES. EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, DEFINED AS CHANGES IN PHENOTYPE OR GENE EXPRESSION CAUSED BY MECHANISMS OTHER THAN CHANGES IN THE UNDERLYING DNA SEQUENCE, HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO CONSTITUTE A LINK BETWEEN GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT COMPLEX DISEASES. RECENT STUDIES SHOW THAT DNA METHYLATION, ONE OF THE KEY EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, IS ALTERED IN CHILDREN EXPOSED TO AIR POLLUTANTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOBACCO SMOKE EARLY IN LIFE. SEVERAL CANDIDATE GENE STUDIES ON EPIGENETICS HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED TO DATE, BUT IT IS ONLY RECENTLY THAT GLOBAL METHYLATION ANALYSES HAVE BEEN PERFORMED FOR RESPIRATORY DISORDERS SUCH AS ASTHMA AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE. HOWEVER, LARGE-SCALE STUDIES WITH ADEQUATE POWER ARE YET TO BE PRESENTED IN CHILDREN, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CLINICAL USE REMAIN TO BE EVALUATED. IN THIS REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE THE RECENT ADVANCES IN EPIGENETICS AND RESPIRATORY DISORDERS IN CHILDREN, WITH A MAIN FOCUS ON METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES AND ANALYSES RELATED TO PHENOTYPE AND EXPOSURE USING GLOBAL METHYLATION APPROACHES.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
14 2274 30 EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND FETAL PROGRAMMING. FETAL PROGRAMMING ENCOMPASSES THE ROLE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY IN RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND NUTRITIONAL SIGNALS DURING EARLY LIFE AND ITS POTENTIAL ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES (RISK OF CARDIOVASCULAR, METABOLIC AND BEHAVIOURAL DISEASES) IN LATER LIFE. THE FIRST STUDIES IN THIS FIELD HIGHLIGHTED AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN POOR FETAL GROWTH AND CHRONIC ADULT DISEASES. HOWEVER, ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNALS DURING EARLY LIFE MAY LEAD TO ADVERSE LONG-TERM EFFECTS INDEPENDENTLY OF OBVIOUS EFFECTS ON FETAL GROWTH. ADVERSE LONG-TERM EFFECTS REFLECT A MISMATCH BETWEEN EARLY (FETAL AND NEONATAL) ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND THE CONDITIONS THAT THE INDIVIDUAL WILL CONFRONT LATER IN LIFE. THE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THIS RISK REMAIN UNCLEAR. HOWEVER, EXPERIMENTAL DATA IN RODENTS AND RECENT OBSERVATIONS IN HUMANS SUGGEST THAT EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN REGULATORY GENES AND GROWTH-RELATED GENES PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN FETAL PROGRAMMING. IMPROVEMENTS IN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS AT PLAY IN FETAL PROGRAMMING WOULD MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS FOR DETECTING INFANTS AT HIGH RISK OF ADULT-ONSET DISEASES. SUCH IMPROVEMENTS SHOULD ALSO LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREVENTIVE AND THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
15 2007 30 EPIGENETIC BASIS FOR FETAL ORIGINS OF AGE-RELATED DISEASE. THE CURRENT CONCEPT OF FETAL ORIGINS OF ADULT DISEASES DESCRIBES IN UTERO PROGRAMMING, OR ADAPTATION TO A SPECTRUM OF ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS THAT ULTIMATELY LEADS TO INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO AGE-RELATED DISEASES (E.G., TYPE 2 DIABETES AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE) LATER IN LIFE. ALTHOUGH THE PRECISE MECHANISM OF THIS BIOLOGICAL MEMORY REMAINS UNCLEAR, MOUNTING EVIDENCE SUGGESTS AN EPIGENETIC BASIS. THE INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CHRONIC DISEASE AND INVOLVEMENT OF MULTIPLE ORGAN SYSTEMS THAT IS OBSERVED IS ANALOGOUS TO THE DECLINE IN RESISTANCE TO DISEASE THAT IS TYPICAL OF NORMAL AGING. ALTHOUGH THE CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENT OVER THE COURSE OF A LIFETIME CAN INDUCE INCREASING EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION, WE PROPOSE THAT ADVERSE EVENTS THAT OCCUR DURING EARLY DEVELOPMENT CAN INDUCE SIGNIFICANT ADDITIONAL DYSREGULATION OF THE EPIGENOME. HERE, WE DESCRIBE THE CURRENT EVIDENCE FOR FETAL ORIGINS OF ADULT DISEASE AND THE ASSOCIATED ROLE OF EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION. IN ADDITION, WE PRESENT A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON THE INDUCTION OF EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN UTERO, WHICH SUBSEQUENTLY LEAD TO AN AGING PHENOTYPE MARKED BY INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO AGE-RELATED DISEASES.	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
16 1324 36 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) METHYLATION IN CHILDREN EXPOSED TO AIR POLLUTION: A POSSIBLE MECHANISM UNDERLYING RESPIRATORY HEALTH EFFECTS DEVELOPMENT. AIR POLLUTION IS A SUBSTANTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL THREAT TO CHILDREN AND ACTS AS ACUTE AND CHRONIC DISEASE RISK FACTORS ALIKE. SEVERAL STUDIES HAVE PREVIOUSLY EVALUATED EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS CONCERNING ITS EXPOSURE ACROSS VARIOUS LIFE STAGES. HOWEVER, FINDINGS ON EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AS THE CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION DURING CHILDHOOD ARE RATHER MINIMAL. THIS REVIEW EVALUATED HIGHLY RELEVANT STUDIES IN THE FIELD TO ANALYZE THE EXISTING LITERATURE REGARDING EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, WITH A FOCUS ON EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS DURING CHILDHOOD AND THEIR CONNECTIONS WITH RESPIRATORY HEALTH EFFECTS. THE SEARCH WAS CONDUCTED USING READILY AVAILABLE ELECTRONIC DATABASES (PUBMED AND SCIENCEDIRECT) TO SCREEN FOR CHILDREN'S STUDIES ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS FOLLOWING EITHER PRE- OR POST-NATAL EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTANTS. STUDIES RELEVANT ENOUGH AND MATCHED THE PREDETERMINED CRITERIA WERE CHOSEN TO BE REVIEWED. NON-ENGLISH ARTICLES AND STUDIES THAT DID NOT REPORT BOTH AIR MONITORING AND EPIGENETIC OUTCOMES IN THE SAME ARTICLE WERE EXCLUDED. THE REVIEW FOUND THAT EPIGENETIC CHANGES HAVE BEEN LINKED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTANTS DURING EARLY LIFE WITH EVIDENCE AND REPORTS OF HOW THEY MAY DEREGULATE THE EPIGENOME BALANCE, THUS INDUCING DISEASE PROGRESSION IN THE FUTURE. EPIGENETIC STUDIES EVOLVE AS A PROMISING NEW APPROACH IN DECIPHERING THE UNDERLYING IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) DUE TO LINKS ESTABLISHED BETWEEN SOME OF THESE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND ILLNESSES.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
17 6844 27 [METABOLIC PROGRAMMING: THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE]. IT IS KNOWN THAT THE POOR NUTRITION DURING A FETAL DEVELOPMENT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO AN INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. IN A MODERN LITERATURE, THIS PHENOMENON IS CALLED <<THE NUTRITIONAL PROGRAMMING OF AGE-RELATED PATHOLOGIES>>. IT IS ASSUMED THAT THE QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE DEFICIENCY OF CERTAIN NUTRITIONAL COMPONENTS DURING AN EARLY DEVELOPMENT MAY LEAD TO THE ADAPTATIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO IMPROVED SURVIVAL DURING THE PRENATAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL PERIODS OF AN ONTOGENESIS. HOWEVER, THE CONSEQUENCE OF SUCH ADAPTIVE CHANGES MAY ALSO BE THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS PATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AT THE LATER STAGES OF LIFE. RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT ONE OF THE MAJOR MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THESE ADAPTATIONS IS THE EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF A GENE ACTIVITY. IN THIS REVIEW, THE EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE IS PROVIDED THAT PROCESSES ARISING FROM A QUANTITATIVELY OR QUALITATIVELY RESTRICTED DIET DURING THE EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE FURTHER LIFE AND CAN GREATLY INFLUENCE RISK OF VARIOUS AGE-RELATED DISEASES AND LIFE SPAN.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
18 6554 22 TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS ON AGING AND DISEASE INCIDENCE. ADVERSE EARLY LIFE EXPERIENCES ARE MAJOR INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES WITH POTENTIALLY LIFE-LONG CONSEQUENCES. PRENATAL OR EARLY POSTNATAL EXPOSURE TO STRESS, UNDERNUTRITION OR ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS MAY REPROGRAM BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND INCREASE RISK OF BEHAVIOURAL AND NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS LATER IN LIFE. NOT ONLY EXPERIENCE WITHIN A SINGLE LIFETIME, BUT ALSO ANCESTRAL EXPERIENCE AFFECTS HEALTH TRAJECTORIES AND CHANCES OF SUCCESSFUL AGING. THE CENTRAL MECHANISM IN TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING OF A DISEASE MAY BE THE FORMATION OF EPIGENETIC MEMORY. THIS REVIEW EXPLORES TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF EARLY ADVERSE EXPERIENCE ON HEALTH AND DISEASE INCIDENCE IN OLDER AGE. FIRST, WE ADDRESS MECHANISMS OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING OF DISEASE AND INHERITANCE. SECOND, WE DISCUSS EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL FINDINGS LINKING EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS TO ADVERSE AGING TRAJECTORIES IN ASSOCIATION WITH POSSIBLE PARENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS AND SEX-SPECIFIC EFFECTS. THIRD, WE OUTLINE THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF AGE-RELATED FUNCTIONAL DECLINE AND SUGGEST POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS TO REVERSE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING. THUS, STRATEGIES THAT SUPPORT HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT AND SUCCESSFUL AGING SHOULD TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE POTENTIAL INFLUENCES OF TRANSGENERATIONAL INHERITANCE.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
19 1932 32 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES: AN UNDERRECOGNIZED CONTRIBUTION TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES. PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE TO WHICH EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS) HAVE BEEN VERY CONSERVATIVE AND HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY UNDERESTIMATED THE ACTUAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR AT LEAST TWO REASONS. FIRSTLY, MOST PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE EXCLUDED THE CONTRIBUTION OF LIFESTYLE BEHAVIORAL RISK FACTORS, BUT THESE USUALLY INVOLVE SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS THAT INCREASE RISK OF DISEASE. SECONDLY, EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE TO CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IS NOW CLEARLY ASSOCIATED WITH AN ELEVATED RISK OF SEVERAL DISEASES LATER IN LIFE, BUT THESE CONNECTIONS ARE OFTEN DIFFICULT TO DISCERN. THIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE FOR ASTHMA AND NEURODEVELOPMENTAL CONDITIONS, BUT THERE IS ALSO A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY AND CHRONIC DISEASES. MOST CANCERS ARE CAUSED BY ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN GENETICALLY SUSCEPTIBLE INDIVIDUALS. IN ADDITION, NEW INFORMATION SHOWS SIGNIFICANT ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES AND DIABETES AND EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS PRESENT IN AIR, FOOD, AND WATER. THESE RELATIONSHIPS LIKELY REFLECT THE COMBINATION OF EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AND GENE INDUCTION. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE TO NCDS THAN PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE SUGGESTED. PREVENTION NEEDS TO SHIFT FOCUS FROM INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY AND AN UNDERSTANDING THAT EFFECTIVE PREVENTION OF NCDS ULTIMATELY RELIES ON IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE EXPOSURE TO MODIFIABLE RISKS.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
20  754 30 CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS TO PARTICLE INHALATION EXPOSURE: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF THE TOXICOLOGY. AMBIENT AIR, OCCUPATIONAL SETTINGS, AND THE USE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CONSUMER PRODUCTS ALL SERVE AS CONDUITS FOR TOXICANT EXPOSURE THROUGH INHALATION. WHILE THE PULMONARY SYSTEM REMAINS A PRIMARY TARGET FOLLOWING INHALATION EXPOSURE, CARDIOVASCULAR IMPLICATIONS ARE EXCEPTIONALLY CULPABLE FOR INCREASED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR CARDIOVASCULAR DYSFUNCTION RESULTING FROM ACUTE OR CHRONIC INHALATION EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE MATTER HAS BEEN WELL DOCUMENTED, BUT THE MECHANISMS DRIVING THE RESULTING DISTURBANCES REMAIN ELUSIVE. IN THE CURRENT REVIEW, WE AIM TO SUMMARIZE THE CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS THAT ARE DIRECTLY LINKED TO CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO A VARIETY OF INHALED TOXICANTS. THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW IS TO PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW OF THE BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM FOLLOWING PARTICLE INHALATION EXPOSURE AND TO HIGHLIGHT POTENTIAL BIOMARKERS THAT EXIST ACROSS MULTIPLE EXPOSURE PARADIGMS. WE ATTEMPT TO INTEGRATE THESE MOLECULAR SIGNATURES IN AN EFFORT TO PROVIDE DIRECTION FOR FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS. THIS REVIEW ALSO CHARACTERIZES HOW MOLECULAR RESPONSES ARE MODIFIED IN AT-RISK POPULATIONS, SPECIFICALLY THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE DURING CRITICAL WINDOWS OF DEVELOPMENT. MATERNAL EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE MATTER DURING GESTATION CAN LEAD TO FETAL EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING, RESULTING IN LONG-TERM DEFICITS TO THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM. IN BOTH DIRECT AND INDIRECT (GESTATIONAL) EXPOSURES, CONNECTING THE BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS WITH FUNCTIONAL DEFICITS OUTLINES PATHWAYS THAT CAN BE TARGETED FOR FUTURE THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION. ULTIMATELY, FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS INTEGRATING "OMICS"-BASED APPROACHES WILL BETTER ELUCIDATE THE MECHANISMS THAT ARE ALTERED BY XENOBIOTIC INHALATION EXPOSURE, IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS, AND GUIDE IN CLINICAL DECISION MAKING.	2020