1 3884 456 KIDNEY DISEASE IN DIABETES. PERSONS WITH DIABETES MAKE UP THE FASTEST GROWING GROUP OF KIDNEY DIALYSIS AND TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS IN THE UNITED STATES. IN 1985, WHEN THE FIRST EDITION OF DIABETES IN AMERICA WAS PUBLISHED, 20,961 PERSONS WITH DIABETES WERE RECEIVING RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY, REPRESENTING 29% OF ALL NEW CASES OF END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD). BY 2012, 239,837 PERSONS WITH DIABETES WERE ON RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY, ACCOUNTING FOR 44% OF ALL NEW ESRD CASES. THE INCREASED COUNT REFLECTS GROWTH IN DIABETES PREVALENCE AND INCREASED ACCESS TO DIALYSIS AND TRANSPLANTATION. THOSE WITH A PRIMARY DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES HAVE LOWER SURVIVAL RELATIVE TO OTHER CAUSES OF ESRD, PRIMARILY BECAUSE OF THE COEXISTENT MORBIDITY ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES, PARTICULARLY CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVD). WHILE SURVIVAL ON DIALYSIS HAS SLOWLY IMPROVED ACROSS MODALITIES SINCE THE 1990S, IT REMAINS REDUCED IN PERSONS WITH DIABETES, HALF OF WHOM DIE WITHIN 3 YEARS OF BEGINNING DIALYSIS IN THE UNITED STATES. SIMILAR TO PERSONS WITH ESRD IN GENERAL, THE LEADING CAUSES OF DEATH AMONG ADULTS WITH DIABETES WHO STARTED DIALYSIS IN 1995-2009 WERE CVD (58% OF THE DEATHS) AND INFECTIONS (13% OF THE DEATHS). KIDNEY TRANSPLANT RECIPIENTS WITH DIABETES HAVE MUCH BETTER SURVIVAL THAN THOSE ON DIALYSIS, INDICATING A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT OF THE TYPE OF RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY (TRANSPLANT VERSUS DIALYSIS) ON LONG-TERM SURVIVAL. KIDNEY FAILURE AFFECTS ABOUT 1% OF PERSONS WITH DIABETES IN THE UNITED STATES. A CONSIDERABLY HIGHER PROPORTION, ABOUT 40%, HAVE LESS SEVERE KIDNEY DISEASE. SINCE THE SECOND EDITION OF DIABETES IN AMERICA WAS PUBLISHED IN 1995, A WEALTH OF NEW INFORMATION HAS CONTRIBUTED SUBSTANTIALLY TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF KIDNEY DISEASE ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES. IN 2002, THE NATIONAL KIDNEY FOUNDATION'S KIDNEY DISEASE OUTCOME QUALITY INITIATIVE PUBLISHED A UNIFORM DEFINITION OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) AND CLASSIFICATION OF ITS STAGES IRRESPECTIVE OF UNDERLYING CAUSE, THUS PROVIDING A COMMON LANGUAGE FOR DEFINING BOTH THE SEVERITY AND PROGNOSIS OF KIDNEY DISEASE. THE DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CKD WERE SUBSEQUENTLY UPDATED AND REFINED BY THE KIDNEY DISEASE: IMPROVING GLOBAL OUTCOMES IN 2012. ACCORDINGLY, CKD IS CLASSIFIED BASED ON BOTH ALBUMINURIA AND GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR) CATEGORIES, AND TOGETHER WITH KIDNEY FAILURE, THESE CONDITIONS ARE COLLECTIVELY REFERRED TO AS CKD, REGARDLESS OF ETIOLOGY. IN ADDITION, THE KIDNEY DISEASE: IMPROVING GLOBAL OUTCOMES RECOMMENDS USING EQUATIONS TO ESTIMATE GFR (EGFR), WHICH INCLUDE THE ROUTINELY OBTAINED VARIABLES SERUM CREATININE, AGE, SEX, AND RACE/ETHNICITY. THE USE OF SERUM CYSTATIN C, AN ENDOGENOUS FILTRATION MARKER LESS INFLUENCED THAN SERUM CREATININE BY VARIATIONS IN MUSCLE MASS, DIET, AND TUBULAR SECRETION, HAS EMERGED AS AN ALTERNATIVE OR AN ADJUNCT TO SERUM CREATININE-BASED EQUATIONS, PARTICULARLY IN PERSONS WITH DIABETES, IN WHOM EARLY KIDNEY DISEASE IS OFTEN CHARACTERIZED BY ELEVATED GFR. SINCE THE LATE 1990S, NEW MOLECULAR MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN DEFINED THAT ARE HELPING TO EXPLAIN THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. GLOMERULAR STRUCTURAL LESIONS WERE FOUND TO EXPLAIN 95% OF THE VARIABILITY IN ALBUMIN EXCRETION AND 78% OF GFR VARIABILITY. THE LATTER PERCENTAGE INCREASED TO 92% BY ADDING INDICES OF GLOMERULAR-TUBULAR JUNCTION ABNORMALITIES AND INTERSTITIAL EXPANSION TO THE REGRESSION MODELS. PODOCYTE INJURY APPEARS TO PLAY AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN THE PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. IN PERSONS WITH EITHER TYPE 1 OR TYPE 2 DIABETES, PODOCYTE CHANGES MAY OCCUR EVEN BEFORE THE INCREASE IN ALBUMINURIA, SUGGESTING THAT DIABETES ITSELF MAY INDUCE PODOCYTE ALTERATIONS. MUCH HAS ALSO BEEN WRITTEN ABOUT THE PROGNOSTIC IMPLICATIONS OF CKD. ELEVATED ALBUMINURIA AND LOW GFR ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ESRD, FATAL AND NONFATAL CVD, AND ALL-CAUSE MORTALITY. A META-ANALYSIS OF 1,024,977 PARTICIPANTS (NEARLY 13% WITH DIABETES) FROM 30 GENERAL POPULATION AND HIGH-RISK CARDIOVASCULAR COHORTS AND 13 CKD COHORTS INDICATED THAT WHILE THE ABSOLUTE RISKS FOR ALL-CAUSE AND CVD MORTALITY ARE HIGHER IN THE PRESENCE OF DIABETES, THE RELATIVE RISKS OF ESRD OR DEATH BY EGFR AND ALBUMINURIA ARE SIMILAR WITH OR WITHOUT DIABETES. THESE FINDINGS UNDERSCORE THE IMPORTANCE OF KIDNEY DISEASE PER SE AS A PREDICTOR OF IMPORTANT CLINICAL OUTCOMES, REGARDLESS OF THE UNDERLYING CAUSE OF KIDNEY DISEASE. NEW BIOMARKERS OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE APPEAR TO HAVE ADDITIONAL PROGNOSTIC INFORMATION BEYOND THAT PROVIDED BY ALBUMINURIA. THESE MARKERS INCLUDE KIDNEY INJURY MOLECULE 1, LIVER FATTY ACID-BINDING PROTEIN, N-ACETYL-BETA-D-GLUCOSAMINIDASE, NEUTROPHIL GELATINASE-ASSOCIATED LIPOCALIN, BETA-TRACE PROTEIN, BETA(2)-MICROGLOBULIN, AND TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTORS 1 AND 2. MANY CONCEPTS ABOUT RISK FACTORS FOR CKD ILLUSTRATED IN THIS CHAPTER HAVE NOT CHANGED SINCE 1995, AND WHERE THEY HAVE, THOSE CHANGES ARE DISCUSSED. IN PARTICULAR, MAJOR ADVANCES HAVE BEEN MADE IN ELUCIDATING THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC COMPLEXITY OF CKD, WHICH CONTRIBUTED TO DEFINING CELLULAR METABOLIC MEMORY AND THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE LONGLASTING EFFECTS OF STRICT GLYCEMIC CONTROL OBSERVED IN PERSONS WITH TYPE 1 DIABETES OR TYPE 2 DIABETES. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF PERSONS WITH DIABETES AND CKD HAVE EXTENDED THE TIME COURSE FROM ONSET OF SEVERE ALBUMINURIA TO ESRD AND REDUCED THE OCCURRENCE OF CVD. IN TYPE 1 DIABETES, THE COMBINED DIABETES CONTROL AND COMPLICATIONS TRIAL (DCCT) AND ITS LONG-TERM FOLLOW-UP, THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DIABETES INTERVENTIONS AND COMPLICATIONS (EDIC) OBSERVATIONAL STUDY, INDICATED THAT INTENSIVE EARLY METABOLIC CONTROL REDUCED THE RISK OF IMPAIRED GFR BY 50% AND OF CVD OUTCOMES BY 42%, WITH A SPECIFIC 57% DECREASE IN MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, STROKE, OR DEATH FROM CVD, EFFECTS THAT WERE PARTLY MEDIATED BY THE REDUCED INCIDENCE OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. AMONG PERSONS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES, A META-ANALYSIS OF RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS INDICATED THAT MORE INTENSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL (GLYCOSYLATED HEMOGLOBIN [A1C] <7%) WAS ASSOCIATED WITH A SIGNIFICANT 10% REDUCTION IN ALBUMINURIA BUT HAD NO EFFECTS ON MORTALITY, KIDNEY FAILURE, OR OTHER VASCULAR OUTCOMES. THE ACTION TO CONTROL CARDIOVASCULAR RISK IN DIABETES (ACCORD) TRIAL, TARGETING AN A1C LEVEL <6.0% IN THE INTENSIVE INTERVENTION ARM, REPORTED AN INCREASED RISK OF CVD DEATH FOR INTENSIVE VERSUS CONVENTIONAL GLYCEMIC CONTROL, ALTHOUGH IT REMAINS UNCLEAR WHETHER THIS EFFECT WAS RELATED TO MORE HYPOGLYCEMIC EPISODES, THE USE OF ADDITIONAL HYPOGLYCEMIC MEDICINES, OR TO THE TARGET GLYCEMIC LEVEL ITSELF. LIKEWISE, THE MODEST GAINS IN INTERMEDIATE OUTCOMES IN THE INTENSIVE TREATMENT ARMS OF THE ACTION IN DIABETES AND VASCULAR DISEASE: PRETERAX AND DIAMICRON MODIFIED RELEASE CONTROLLED EVALUATION (ADVANCE) AND THE VETERANS AFFAIRS DIABETES (VADT) TRIAL WERE COUNTERBALANCED BY A TWOFOLD TO THREEFOLD HIGHER RISK OF SEVERE HYPOGLYCEMIA. TOGETHER, THESE TRIALS INDICATE THAT GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS EXTREMELY USEFUL UP TO A POINT, BUT MORE AGGRESSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL MAY BE HARMFUL. SIMILARLY, FOR BLOOD PRESSURE CONTROL, 2014-2015 RECOMMENDATIONS BY THE GUIDELINE-WRITING GROUPS ENDORSE LESS INTENSIVE AND MORE INDIVIDUALIZED BLOOD PRESSURE TARGETS FOR DIABETES AND CKD THAN IN THE PAST. PERSONS WITH DIABETES AND CKD REQUIRE MULTIDISCIPLINARY MANAGEMENT INVOLVING A COMBINATION OF TREATMENTS AND BEHAVIORAL ADJUSTMENTS TO DELAY PROGRESSION OF CKD AND TO PREVENT THE ASSOCIATED COMPLICATIONS. THE STENO-2 STUDY, A LANDMARK PROSPECTIVE, RANDOMIZED TRIAL IN DENMARK, DEMONSTRATED THAT COMPARED WITH CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT, INTENSIVE MULTIFACTORIAL INTERVENTION LED TO 46% LOWER DEATH RATE, 56% LESS SEVERE ALBUMINURIA, 43% LOWER INCIDENCE OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, AND 47% LOWER INCIDENCE OF AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY DURING THE 13.3-YEAR STUDY PERIOD.	2018	

2  933  97 CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. THE DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) HAVE EVOLVED OVER TIME, BUT CURRENT INTERNATIONAL GUIDELINES DEFINE THIS CONDITION AS DECREASED KIDNEY FUNCTION SHOWN BY GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR) OF LESS THAN 60 ML/MIN PER 1.73 M(2), OR MARKERS OF KIDNEY DAMAGE, OR BOTH, OF AT LEAST 3 MONTHS DURATION, REGARDLESS OF THE UNDERLYING CAUSE. DIABETES AND HYPERTENSION ARE THE MAIN CAUSES OF CKD IN ALL HIGH-INCOME AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES, AND ALSO IN MANY LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES. INCIDENCE, PREVALENCE, AND PROGRESSION OF CKD ALSO VARY WITHIN COUNTRIES BY ETHNICITY AND SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH, POSSIBLY THROUGH EPIGENETIC INFLUENCE. MANY PEOPLE ARE ASYMPTOMATIC OR HAVE NON-SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS SUCH AS LETHARGY, ITCH, OR LOSS OF APPETITE. DIAGNOSIS IS COMMONLY MADE AFTER CHANCE FINDINGS FROM SCREENING TESTS (URINARY DIPSTICK OR BLOOD TESTS), OR WHEN SYMPTOMS BECOME SEVERE. THE BEST AVAILABLE INDICATOR OF OVERALL KIDNEY FUNCTION IS GFR, WHICH IS MEASURED EITHER VIA EXOGENOUS MARKERS (EG, DTPA, IOHEXOL), OR ESTIMATED USING EQUATIONS. PRESENCE OF PROTEINURIA IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISK OF PROGRESSION OF CKD AND DEATH. KIDNEY BIOPSY SAMPLES CAN SHOW DEFINITIVE EVIDENCE OF CKD, THROUGH COMMON CHANGES SUCH AS GLOMERULAR SCLEROSIS, TUBULAR ATROPHY, AND INTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS. COMPLICATIONS INCLUDE ANAEMIA DUE TO REDUCED PRODUCTION OF ERYTHROPOIETIN BY THE KIDNEY; REDUCED RED BLOOD CELL SURVIVAL AND IRON DEFICIENCY; AND MINERAL BONE DISEASE CAUSED BY DISTURBED VITAMIN D, CALCIUM, AND PHOSPHATE METABOLISM. PEOPLE WITH CKD ARE FIVE TO TEN TIMES MORE LIKELY TO DIE PREMATURELY THAN THEY ARE TO PROGRESS TO END STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE. THIS INCREASED RISK OF DEATH RISES EXPONENTIALLY AS KIDNEY FUNCTION WORSENS AND IS LARGELY ATTRIBUTABLE TO DEATH FROM CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, ALTHOUGH CANCER INCIDENCE AND MORTALITY ARE ALSO INCREASED. HEALTH-RELATED QUALITY OF LIFE IS SUBSTANTIALLY LOWER FOR PEOPLE WITH CKD THAN FOR THE GENERAL POPULATION, AND FALLS AS GFR DECLINES. INTERVENTIONS TARGETING SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS, OR AIMED AT SUPPORTING EDUCATIONAL OR LIFESTYLE CONSIDERATIONS, MAKE A POSITIVE DIFFERENCE TO PEOPLE LIVING WITH CKD. INEQUITY IN ACCESS TO SERVICES FOR THIS DISEASE DISPROPORTIONALLY AFFECTS DISADVANTAGED POPULATIONS, AND HEALTH SERVICE PROVISION TO INCENTIVISE EARLY INTERVENTION OVER PROVISION OF CARE ONLY FOR ADVANCED CKD IS STILL EVOLVING IN MANY COUNTRIES.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
3 3095  81 GENOMIC APPROACHES IN THE SEARCH FOR MOLECULAR BIOMARKERS IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. BACKGROUND: CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IS RECOGNISED AS A GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM, MORE PREVALENT IN OLDER PERSONS AND ASSOCIATED WITH MULTIPLE CO-MORBIDITIES. DIABETES MELLITUS AND HYPERTENSION ARE COMMON AETIOLOGIES FOR CKD, BUT IGA GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, MEMBRANOUS GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, LUPUS NEPHRITIS AND AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE ARE ALSO COMMON CAUSES OF CKD. MAIN BODY: CONVENTIONAL BIOMARKERS FOR CKD INVOLVING THE USE OF ESTIMATED GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (EGFR) DERIVED FROM FOUR VARIABLES (SERUM CREATININE, AGE, GENDER AND ETHNICITY) ARE RECOMMENDED BY CLINICAL GUIDELINES FOR THE EVALUATION, CLASSIFICATION, AND STRATIFICATION OF CKD. HOWEVER, THESE CLINICAL BIOMARKERS PRESENT SOME LIMITATIONS, ESPECIALLY FOR EARLY STAGES OF CKD, ELDERLY INDIVIDUALS, EXTREME BODY MASS INDEX VALUES (SERUM CREATININE), OR ARE INFLUENCED BY INFLAMMATION, STEROID TREATMENT AND THYROID DYSFUNCTION (SERUM CYSTATIN C). THERE IS THEREFORE A NEED TO IDENTIFY ADDITIONAL NON-INVASIVE BIOMARKERS THAT ARE USEFUL IN CLINICAL PRACTICE TO HELP IMPROVE CKD DIAGNOSIS, INFORM PROGNOSIS AND GUIDE THERAPEUTIC MANAGEMENT. CONCLUSION: CKD IS A MULTIFACTORIAL DISEASE WITH ASSOCIATED GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISK FACTORS. HENCE, MANY STUDIES HAVE EMPLOYED GENETIC, EPIGENETIC AND TRANSCRIPTOMIC APPROACHES TO IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS FOR KIDNEY DISEASE. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HAVE SUMMARISED THE MOST IMPORTANT STUDIES IN HUMANS INVESTIGATING GENOMIC BIOMARKERS FOR CKD IN THE LAST DECADE. SEVERAL GENES, INCLUDING UMOD, SHROOM3 AND ELMO1 HAVE BEEN STRONGLY ASSOCIATED WITH RENAL DISEASES, AND SOME OF THEIR TRAITS, SUCH AS EGFR AND SERUM CREATININE. THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC AND TRANSCRIPTOMIC BIOMARKERS IN CKD AND RELATED DISEASES IS STILL UNCLEAR. THE COMBINATION OF MULTIPLE BIOMARKERS INTO CLASSIFIERS, INCLUDING GENOMIC, AND/OR EPIGENOMIC, MAY GIVE A MORE COMPLETE PICTURE OF KIDNEY DISEASES.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
4 3502  86 IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL BIOMARKERS OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE IN INDIVIDUALS WITH DIABETES: PROTOCOL FOR A CROSS-SECTIONAL OBSERVATIONAL STUDY. BACKGROUND: THE IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFYING PEOPLE WITH DIABETES AND PROGRESSIVE KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION RELATES TO THE EXCESS MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY OF THIS GROUP. RATES OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE ARE MUCH HIGHER IN PEOPLE WITH BOTH DIABETES AND KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION THAN IN THOSE WITH ONLY ONE OF THESE CONDITIONS. BY THE TIME THESE PEOPLE ARE IDENTIFIED IN CURRENT CLINICAL PRACTICE, PROTEINURIA AND RENAL DYSFUNCTION ARE ALREADY ESTABLISHED, LIMITING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS. THE IDENTIFICATION OF AN EPIGENETIC OR BLOOD METABOLITE SIGNATURE OR GUT MICROBIOME PROFILE MAY IDENTIFY THOSE WITH DIABETES AT RISK OF PROGRESSIVE CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE, IN TURN PROVIDING TARGETED INTERVENTION TO IMPROVE PATIENT OUTCOMES. OBJECTIVE: THIS STUDY AIMS TO IDENTIFY POTENTIAL BIOMARKERS IN PEOPLE WITH DIABETES AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) ASSOCIATED WITH PROGRESSIVE RENAL INJURY AND TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN STAGES OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. THREE SOURCES OF BIOMARKERS WILL BE EXPLORED, INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION PROFILES IN BLOOD LYMPHOCYTES, THE METABOLOMIC PROFILE OF BLOOD-DERIVED PLASMA AND URINE, AND THE GUT MICROBIOME. METHODS: THE CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY RECRUITED 121 PEOPLE WITH DIABETES AND VARYING STAGES (STAGES 1-5) OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. SINGLE-POINT DATA COLLECTION INCLUDED BLOOD, URINE, AND FECAL SAMPLES IN ADDITION TO CLINICAL DATA SUCH AS ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS AND BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM MEDICAL RECORDS INCLUDED PATIENT DEMOGRAPHICS, MEDICAL COMORBIDITIES, AND MEDICATIONS. RESULTS: DATA COLLECTION COMMENCED IN JANUARY 2018 AND WAS COMPLETED IN JUNE 2018. AT THE TIME OF SUBMISSION, 121 PATIENTS HAD BEEN RECRUITED, AND 119 SAMPLES REMAINED AFTER QUALITY CONTROL. THERE WERE 83 PARTICIPANTS IN THE EARLY DIABETES-ASSOCIATED CKD GROUP WITH A MEAN ESTIMATED GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (EGFR) OF 61.2 ML/MIN/1.73 M2 (EARLY CKD GROUP CONSISTING OF STAGE 1, 2, AND 3A CKD), AND 36 PARTICIPANTS IN THE LATE DIABETIC CKD GROUP WITH A MEAN EGFR OF 23.9 ML/MIN/1.73 M2 (LATE CKD GROUP, CONSISTING OF STAGE 3B, 4, AND 5), P<.001. WE HAVE SUCCESSFULLY OBTAINED DNA FOR METHYLATION AND MICROBIOME ANALYSES USING THE BIOSPECIMENS COLLECTED VIA THIS PROTOCOL AND ARE CURRENTLY ANALYZING THESE RESULTS TOGETHER WITH THE METABOLOME OF THIS COHORT OF INDIVIDUALS WITH DIABETIC CKD. CONCLUSIONS: RECENT ADVANCES HAVE IMPROVED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE EPIGENOME, METABOLOMICS, AND THE INFLUENCE OF THE GUT MICROBIOME ON THE INCIDENCE OF DISEASES SUCH AS CANCERS, PARTICULARLY THOSE RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. HOWEVER, THERE IS A PAUCITY OF LITERATURE SURROUNDING THESE INFLUENCERS IN RENAL DISEASE. THIS STUDY WILL PROVIDE INSIGHT INTO THE FUNDAMENTAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CKD IN INDIVIDUALS WITH DIABETES, ESPECIALLY IN NOVEL AREAS SUCH AS EPIGENETICS, METABOLOMICS, AND THE KIDNEY-GUT AXIS. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/16277.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
5 1883  74 END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE, INFLAMMATION AND CARDIOVASCULAR OUTCOMES. DESPITE MARKED IMPROVEMENTS IN RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY DURING THE LAST 30 YEARS, THE AGE-ADJUSTED MORTALITY RATE IN END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD) PATIENTS IS STILL UNACCEPTABLY HIGH AND COMPARABLE TO THAT OF MANY MALIGNANCIES. CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE (CVD) REMAINS THE MAJOR CAUSE OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN ESRD PATIENTS. HOWEVER, TRADITIONAL RISK FACTORS CAN ONLY PARTIALLY EXPLAIN THE HIGH PREMATURE CARDIOVASCULAR BURDEN IN THIS POPULATION. NONTRADITIONAL RISK FACTORS, INCLUDING PERSISTENT LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION, ARE CRITICAL IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS, VASCULAR CALCIFICATION, AND OTHER CAUSES OF CVD AND MAY ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO PROTEIN-ENERGY WASTING AND OTHER COMPLICATIONS IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) PATIENTS. INFLAMMATORY BIOMARKERS, SUCH AS HIGH SENSITIVITY C-REACTIVE PROTEIN AND INTERLEUKIN-6, INDEPENDENTLY PREDICT MORTALITY IN THESE PATIENTS. THE CAUSES OF INFLAMMATION IN CKD ARE MULTIFACTORIAL AND INCLUDE IMBALANCE BETWEEN INCREASED PRODUCTION (DUE TO MULTIPLE SOURCES OF INFLAMMATORY STIMULI SUCH AS OXIDATIVE STRESS, ACIDOSIS, VOLUME OVERLOAD, CO-MORBIDITIES, ESPECIALLY INFECTIONS, GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC INFLUENCES, AND THE DIALYSIS PROCEDURE) AND INADEQUATE REMOVAL (DUE TO DECREASED GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE OR IN ESRD PATIENTS, INADEQUATE DIALYTIC CLEARANCE) OF PRO-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES. THOUGH THERE ARE CURRENTLY NO ESTABLISHED GUIDELINES FOR THE TREATMENT OF LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION IN ESRD PATIENTS, SEVERAL STRATEGIES HAVE BEEN PROPOSED, SUCH AS LIFESTYLE MODIFICATIONS, PHARMACOLOGICAL TREATMENT, AND OPTIMIZATION OF DIALYSIS. FURTHER STUDIES ON PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN PATHOGENIC PROCESSES OF INFLAMMATION IN ESRD, AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF ANTI-INFLAMMATORY INTERVENTIONS TARGETING PRODUCTION OR REMOVAL OF CYTOKINES OR BOTH ON PREMATURE CVD AND CLINICAL OUTCOMES IN THIS PATIENT GROUP ARE WARRANTED.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
6 6652  72 UPDATE ON INFLAMMATION IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. BACKGROUND: DESPITE RECENT ADVANCES IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) AND END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD) MANAGEMENT, MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN THIS POPULATION REMAIN EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH. PERSISTENT, LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED AS AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF CKD, PLAYING A UNIQUE ROLE IN ITS PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND BEING ACCOUNTABLE IN PART FOR CARDIOVASCULAR AND ALL-CAUSE MORTALITY, AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROTEIN-ENERGY WASTING. SUMMARY: THE VARIETY OF FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY STATUS IN CKD, INCLUDING INCREASED PRODUCTION AND DECREASED CLEARANCE OF PRO-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES, OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ACIDOSIS, CHRONIC AND RECURRENT INFECTIONS, INCLUDING THOSE RELATED TO DIALYSIS ACCESS, ALTERED METABOLISM OF ADIPOSE TISSUE, AND INTESTINAL DYSBIOSIS. INFLAMMATION DIRECTLY CORRELATES WITH THE GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR) IN CKD AND CULMINATES IN DIALYSIS PATIENTS, WHERE EXTRACORPOREAL FACTORS, SUCH AS IMPURITIES IN DIALYSIS WATER, MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF THE DIALYSATE, AND BIOINCOMPATIBLE FACTORS IN THE DIALYSIS CIRCUIT PLAY AN ADDITIONAL ROLE. GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC INFLUENCES CONTRIBUTING TO INFLAMMATORY ACTIVATION IN CKD ARE CURRENTLY BEING INTENSIVELY INVESTIGATED. A NUMBER OF INTERVENTIONS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO TARGET INFLAMMATION IN CKD, INCLUDING LIFESTYLE MODIFICATIONS, PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS, AND OPTIMIZATION OF DIALYSIS. IMPORTANTLY, SOME OF THESE THERAPIES HAVE BEEN RECENTLY TESTED IN RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS. KEY MESSAGES: CHRONIC INFLAMMATION SHOULD BE REGARDED AS A COMMON COMORBID CONDITION IN CKD AND ESPECIALLY IN DIALYSIS PATIENTS. A NUMBER OF INTERVENTIONS HAVE BEEN PROVEN TO BE SAFE AND EFFECTIVE IN WELL-DESIGNED CLINICAL STUDIES. THIS INCLUDES SUCH INEXPENSIVE APPROACHES AS MODIFICATION OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTATION. FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ARE NEEDED TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF THESE INTERVENTIONS ON HARD OUTCOMES, AS WELL AS TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THE ROLE OF INFLAMMATION IN SELECTED CKD POPULATIONS (E.G., IN CHILDREN).	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
7 5846  63 STUDY PROTOCOL: RATIONALE AND DESIGN OF THE COMMUNITY-BASED PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDY OF KIDNEY FUNCTION AND DIABETES IN RURAL NEW MEXICO, THE COMPASS STUDY. BACKGROUND: RURAL AREAS IN THE STATE OF NEW MEXICO HAVE BEEN THE "GROUND-ZERO" FOR THE EPIDEMIC OF DIABETIC CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IN THE UNITED STATES. HOWEVER, THERE IS LIMITED RESEARCH ABOUT RISK FACTORS OF DIABETIC CKD IN THIS AREA AND SCARCE DATA REGARDING THE PERFORMANCE OF EMERGING MARKERS OF RENAL FILTRATION AND EPIGENETIC BIOMARKERS OF RENAL FUNCTION AND DIABETES IN THIS AREA WITH ITS UNIQUE ETHNIC/RACIAL POPULATION. WE DESIGNED THE COMPASS STUDY AS A COMMUNITY-BASED PROGRAM IN RURAL NEW MEXICO AIMING TO SCREEN FOR CKD AND TO DISCOVER CKD-RELATED TRANSLATIONAL BIOMARKERS. METHODS/DESIGN: THE STUDY INVOLVES A PROSPECTIVE, LONGITUDINAL COHORT DESIGN INVOLVING INDIVIDUALS LIVING IN RURAL NEW MEXICO. PARTICIPANTS UNDERGO A SCREENING FOR KIDNEY DISEASE USING MARKERS OF ABNORMAL RENAL FILTRATION (IMPAIRED GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE) OR DAMAGE (ALBUMINURIA). THOSE FOUND TO HAVE CKD ON THE BASIS OF THESE TESTS OR THOSE AT RISK FOR CKD ARE ENROLLED IN A PROSPECTIVE LONGITUDINAL COHORT. WE MEASURE MARKERS OF RENAL FUNCTION, INSULIN RESISTANCE AND EPIGENETICS (MICRORNAS) ON PATIENTS. INDIVIDUALS ARE INVITED TO PARTICIPATE IN INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUPS IN ORDER TO CHARACTERIZE THEIR ATTITUDES TOWARDS RESEARCH AND BARRIERS OR FACILITATORS TO PARTICIPATION IN FUTURE RESEARCH STUDIES ABOUT KIDNEY DISEASE. DISCUSSION: THIS STUDY WILL PROVIDE IMPORTANT DATA ABOUT THE LOCAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF KIDNEY DISEASE IN A HIGH-RISK RURAL SETTING AND THE UTILITY OF EMERGING RENAL FILTRATION MARKERS (BETA 2 MICROGLOBULIN AND CYSTATIN C), WHILE GENERATING DATA AND METHODS FOR THE ANALYSES OF MICRORNA BIOMARKERS. THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH SUBPROJECT WILL IDENTIFY FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED WILLINGNESS TO PARTICIPATE IN FUTURE TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH PROJECTS. WITH ITS GEOGRAPHICAL FOCUS, THIS STUDY WILL ADDRESS A CRITICAL DISPARITY IN KIDNEY DISEASE RESEARCH, WHILE GENERATING NOVEL EPIGENETIC DATA THAT ARE RELEVANT FOR FUTURE STUDIES IN THE GENERAL POPULATION.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
8 1389  66 DIABETIC RETINOPATHY AND SYSTEMIC FACTORS. DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, AN OCULARDISEASE, IS GOVERNED BY SYSTEMIC AS WELL AS LOCAL OCULAR FACTORS. THESE INCLUDE PRIMARILY CHRONIC LEVELS OF BLOOD GLUCOSE. INDIVIDUALS WITH CHRONICALLY ELEVATED BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS HAVE SUBSTANTIALLY MORE, AND MORE SEVERE, RETINOPATHY THAN THOSE WITH LOWER BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS. THE RELATIONSHIP OF BLOOD GLUCOSE TO RETINOPATHY IS CONTINUOUS, WITH NO THRESHOLD ALTHOUGH INDIVIDUALS WITH HEMOGLOBIN A1C LEVELS (A MEASURE OF CHRONIC GLYCEMIA) <6.5%, GENERALLY DEVELOP LITTLE OR NO RETINOPATHY. BLOOD PRESSURE LEVELS HAVE BEEN CLAIMED TO INFLUENCE RETINOPATHY DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION, BUT MULTIPLE CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIALS OF ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS IN DIABETIC SUBJECTS HAVE PRODUCED ONLY WEAK EVIDENCE OF BENEFIT FROM BLOOD PRESSURE LOWERING ON THE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. ELEVATED BLOOD LIPIDS SEEM TO PLAY A ROLE IN THE PROGRESSION OF RETINOPATHY, AND TWO TRIALS OF FENOFIBRATE, A LIPID-LOWERING AGENT THAT HAS NOT PROVED EFFECTIVE IN PREVENTING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, HAVE SHOWN BENEFIT IN PREVENTING RETINOPATHY PROGRESSION. THE MECHANISM OF THIS EFFECT MAY NOT, HOWEVER, BE DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE REDUCTION IN BLOOD LIPIDS. FINALLY, THERE IS STRONG, BUT ONLY CIRCUMSTANTIAL, EVIDENCE FOR A GENETIC OR EPIGENETIC INFLUENCE ON THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. DESPITE THE POWER OF LARGE-SCALE EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES AND MODERN MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL AND COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES, THE GENE OR GENES, WHICH PREDISPOSE OR PROTECT AGAINST THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY REMAIN ELUSIVE.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
9 5204  57 PRENATAL PROGRAMMING-EFFECTS ON BLOOD PRESSURE AND RENAL FUNCTION. IMPAIRED INTRAUTERINE NEPHROGENESIS-MOST CLEARLY ILLUSTRATED BY LOW NEPHRON NUMBER-IS FREQUENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH LOW BIRTHWEIGHT AND HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED AS A POWERFUL RISK FACTOR FOR RENAL DISEASE; IT INCREASES THE RISKS OF LOW GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE, OF MORE RAPID PROGRESSION OF PRIMARY KIDNEY DISEASE, AND OF INCREASED INCIDENCE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE OR END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE. ANOTHER IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCE OF IMPAIRED NEPHROGENESIS IS HYPERTENSION, WHICH FURTHER AMPLIFIES THE RISK OF ONSET AND PROGRESSION OF KIDNEY DISEASE. HYPERTENSION IS ASSOCIATED WITH LOW NEPHRON NUMBERS IN WHITE INDIVIDUALS, BUT THE ASSOCIATION IS NOT UNIVERSAL AND IS NOT SEEN IN INDIVIDUALS OF AFRICAN ORIGIN. THE DERANGEMENT OF INTRAUTERINE KIDNEY DEVELOPMENT IS AN EXAMPLE OF A MORE GENERAL PRINCIPLE THAT ILLUSTRATES THE PARADIGM OF PLASTICITY DURING DEVELOPMENT-THAT IS, THAT TRANSCRIPTION OF THE GENETIC CODE IS MODIFIED BY EPIGENETIC FACTORS (AS HAS INCREASINGLY BEEN DOCUMENTED). THIS REVIEW OUTLINES THE CONCEPT OF PRENATAL PROGRAMMING AND, IN PARTICULAR, DESCRIBES ITS ROLE IN KIDNEY DISEASE AND HYPERTENSION.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
10 1388  43 DIABETIC PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE: NON-INVASIVE ASSESSMENT OF CARDIOVASCULAR RISK. THE PREVALENCE AND BURDEN OF DIABETES MELLITUS AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE ON GLOBAL HEALTH AND SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IS ALREADY HEAVY AND STILL RISING. DIABETES MELLITUS BY ITSELF IS LINKED TO ADVERSE CARDIOVASCULAR EVENTS, AND THE PRESENCE OF CONCOMITANT CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE FURTHER AMPLIFIES CARDIOVASCULAR RISK. THE CULMINATION OF TRADITIONAL (MALE GENDER, SMOKING, ADVANCED AGE, OBESITY, ARTERIAL HYPERTENSION AND DYSLIPIDEMIA) AND NON-TRADITIONAL RISK FACTORS (ANEMIA, INFLAMMATION, PROTEINURIA, VOLUME OVERLOAD, MINERAL METABOLISM ABNORMALITIES, OXIDATIVE STRESS, ETC.) CONTRIBUTES TO ADVANCED ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND INCREASED CARDIOVASCULAR RISK. TO DECREASE THE MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY OF THESE PATIENTS DUE TO CARDIOVASCULAR CAUSES, TIMELY AND EFFICIENT CARDIOVASCULAR RISK ASSESSMENT IS OF HUGE IMPORTANCE. CARDIOVASCULAR RISK ASSESSMENT CAN BE BASED ON LABORATORY PARAMETERS, IMAGING TECHNIQUES, ARTERIAL STIFFNESS PARAMETERS, ANKLE-BRACHIAL INDEX AND 24 H BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS. NEWER METHODS INCLUDE EPIGENETIC MARKERS, SOLUBLE ADHESION MOLECULES, CYTOKINES AND MARKERS OF OXIDATIVE STRESS. IN THIS REVIEW, THE AUTHORS PRESENT SEVERAL NON-INVASIVE METHODS OF CARDIOVASCULAR RISK ASSESSMENT IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES MELLITUS AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
11 1642  53 DOES INFLAMMATION AFFECT OUTCOMES IN DIALYSIS PATIENTS? CHRONIC, LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION IS A COMMON COMORBID CONDITION IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD), AND PARTICULARLY IN CHRONIC DIALYSIS PATIENTS. IN THIS REVIEW, WE CONSIDER THE QUESTION OF WHETHER INFLAMMATION AFFECTS OUTCOMES IN DIALYSIS PATIENTS. LEVELS OF PROINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES, AS WELL AS C-REACTIVE PROTEIN, ARE ELEVATED IN CHRONIC DIALYSIS PATIENTS. MULTIPLE FACTORS LIKELY CONTRIBUTE TO CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY ACTIVATION IN KIDNEY DISEASE PATIENTS INCLUDING THE UREMIC MILIEU, LIFESTYLE AND EPIGENETIC INFLUENCES, INFECTIOUS AND THROMBOTIC EVENTS, THE DIALYSIS PROCESS, AND DYSBIOSIS. INCREASED INFLAMMATORY MARKERS IN BOTH CKD AND CHRONIC DIALYSIS PATIENTS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ADVERSE CLINICAL OUTCOMES INCLUDING ALL-CAUSE MORTALITY, CARDIOVASCULAR EVENTS, KIDNEY DISEASE PROGRESSION, PROTEIN ENERGY WASTING AND DIMINISHED MOTOR FUNCTION, COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT, AS WELL AS OTHER ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES INCLUDING CKD-MINERAL AND BONE DISORDER, ANEMIA, AND INSULIN RESISTANCE. STRATEGIES THAT HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO REDUCE CHRONIC SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION IN CKD AND CHRONIC DIALYSIS PATIENTS INCLUDE BOTH PHARMACOLOGICAL AND NONPHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS. HOWEVER, DESPITE EVIDENCE THAT SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY MARKERS CAN BE LOWERED IN KIDNEY DISEASE PATIENTS TREATED WITH VARIOUS STRATEGIES, EVIDENCE THAT THIS IMPROVES CLINICAL OUTCOMES IS LARGELY UNAVAILABLE AND REPRESENTS AN IMPORTANT FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION. OVERALL, THERE IS STRONG OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE THAT INFLAMMATION IS HIGH IN CHRONIC DIALYSIS PATIENTS AND THAT THIS IS INDEPENDENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH NUMEROUS ADVERSE CLINICAL OUTCOMES. TARGETING INFLAMMATION REPRESENTS A POTENTIALLY NOVEL AND ATTRACTIVE STRATEGY IF IT CAN INDEED IMPROVE ADVERSE OUTCOMES COMMON IN THIS POPULATION.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
12 6029  74 THE BURDEN OF DIABETES: EMERGING DATA. IN RECENT TIMES, THE GLOBAL PREVALENCE OF DIABETES HAS INCREASED SUBSTANTIALLY, REACHING 8.3% IN 2014, WHICH CORRESPONDS TO 387 MILLION PATIENTS. STUDIES IN EUROPE AND USA HAVE SHOWN INCREASED INCIDENCE OF TYPE 1 DIABETES (T1D) OVER TIME AT A RATE OF 3-5% PER YEAR. ANOTHER MOST WORRYING FEATURE OF THE RAPID INCREASE OF DIABETES IS THE EMERGENCE OF TYPE 2 DIABETES (T2D) IN CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS, AND YOUNG ADULTS. THE WELL-KNOWN BEHAVIORAL RISKS FACTORS AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS RECENTLY OBSERVED REQUIRE AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO PREVENT T2D. DIABETES SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCES THE PATIENT' SURVIVAL, QUALITY OF LIFE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORGAN SYSTEM DEGENERATION. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN INCREASED MORTALITY IN DIABETIC PATIENTS, ESPECIALLY WOMEN, WHICH INCREASED APPROXIMATELY FIVEFOLD, WHEREAS CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY INCREASED 20- TO 30-FOLD WHEN COMPARED TO THE NORMAL POPULATION. DIABETES IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE AND VISION LOSS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES. AROUND 40% OF T1D AND T2D START ON RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY. WHILE AFTER 40 YEARS OF DIABETES, THE CUMULATIVE PROPORTION OF PATIENTS WITH ANY RETINOPATHY AND ADVANCED RETINOPATHY WAS 84.1 AND 50.2%, RESPECTIVELY. HOWEVER, THE MOST PREVALENT CHRONIC COMPLICATION OF DIABETES IS NEUROPATHY. DISTAL SYMMETRIC POLYNEUROPATHY OCCURS IN AT LEAST 20% OF PEOPLE WITH T1D AFTER 20 YEARS AND IN 10-15% OF NEWLY DIAGNOSED T2D, INCREASING TO 50% AFTER 10 YEARS. CARDIOVASCULAR AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY MAY BE PRESENT IN UP TO 60% OF PATIENTS AFTER 15 YEARS AND IS AN INDEPENDENT RISK FACTOR FOR CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
13 2955  53 GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC FACTORS INFLUENCING CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) HAS BECOME A SERIOUS PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM BECAUSE OF ITS ASSOCIATED MORBIDITY, PREMATURE MORTALITY, AND ATTENDANT HEALTHCARE COSTS. THE RISING NUMBER OF PERSONS WITH CKD IS LINKED WITH THE AGING POPULATION STRUCTURE AND AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DIABETES, HYPERTENSION, AND OBESITY. THERE IS AN INHERITED RISK ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPING CKD, AS EVIDENCED BY FAMILIAL CLUSTERING AND DIFFERING PREVALENCE RATES ACROSS ETHNIC GROUPS. PREVIOUS STUDIES TO DETERMINE THE INHERITED RISK FACTORS FOR CKD RARELY IDENTIFIED GENETIC VARIANTS THAT WERE ROBUSTLY REPLICATED. HOWEVER, IMPROVEMENTS IN GENOTYPING TECHNOLOGIES AND ANALYTIC METHODS ARE NOW HELPING TO IDENTIFY PROMISING GENETIC LOCI AIDED BY INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION AND MULTICONSORTIA EFFORTS. MORE RECENTLY, EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO PLAY A ROLE IN BOTH THE INHERITED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CKD AND, IMPORTANTLY, TO EXPLAIN HOW THE ENVIRONMENT DYNAMICALLY INTERACTS WITH THE GENOME TO ALTER AN INDIVIDUAL'S DISEASE RISK. GENOME-WIDE, EPIGENOME-WIDE, AND WHOLE TRANSCRIPTOME STUDIES HAVE BEEN PERFORMED, AND OPTIMAL APPROACHES FOR INTEGRATIVE ANALYSIS ARE BEING DEVELOPED. THIS REVIEW SUMMARIZES RECENT RESEARCH AND THE CURRENT STATUS OF GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC RISK FACTORS INFLUENCING CKD USING POPULATION-BASED INFORMATION.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
14  307  66 ALBUMINURIA DOWNREGULATION OF THE ANTI-AGING FACTOR KLOTHO: THE MISSING LINK POTENTIALLY EXPLAINING THE ASSOCIATION OF PATHOLOGICAL ALBUMINURIA WITH PREMATURE DEATH. TEN PERCENT OF THE ADULT POPULATION HAS CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD), WHICH IS DIAGNOSED WHEN THE GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR) IS BELOW 60 ML/MIN PER 1.73 M(2) OR WHEN ALBUMINURIA IS ABOVE 30 MG/DAY. THE NUMERICAL THRESHOLDS WERE CHOSEN BECAUSE THEY ARE ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF CKD PROGRESSION OR PREMATURE DEATH WITHIN A WIDER SCENARIO OF ACCELERATED AGING. INDEED, CKD IS ONE OF THE FASTEST GROWING CAUSES OF DEATH WORLDWIDE. A DECREASED GFR IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACCUMULATION OF URAEMIC TOXINS THAT MAY PROMOTE TISSUE AND ORGAN DAMAGE. HOWEVER, CKD MAY BE DIAGNOSED WHEN THE GFR IS COMPLETELY NORMAL, AS LONG AS THERE IS PATHOLOGICAL ALBUMINURIA. A KEY UNANSWERED QUESTION TO STEM THE RISE OF CKD-ASSOCIATED DEATHS IS WHETHER THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ISOLATED ALBUMINURIA (WHEN THE GFR IS NORMAL) AND PREMATURE DEATH IS CAUSAL. THE RECENT DEMONSTRATION THAT ALBUMINURIA PER SE DIRECTLY SUPPRESSES THE PRODUCTION OF THE ANTI-AGING FACTOR KLOTHO BY KIDNEY TUBULAR CELLS MAY BE ONE OF THE FIRST STEPS TO ADDRESS THE CAUSALITY OF THE ALBUMINURIA-PREMATURE DEATH-ACCELERATED AGING ASSOCIATION. THIS HYPOTHESIS SHOULD BE TESTED IN INTERVENTIONAL STUDIES THAT SHOULD DRAW FROM TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE ADVANCES. THUS, THE OBSERVATION THAT ALBUMINURIA DECREASES KLOTHO PRODUCTION THROUGH EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IMPLIES THAT KLOTHO DOWNREGULATION MAY PERSIST AFTER THE CORRECTION OF ALBUMINURIA, AND INNOVATIVE THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES ARE NEEDED TO RESTORE KLOTHO PRODUCTION. ON THE BASIS OF RECENT LITERATURE, THESE MAY INCLUDE MANIPULATION OF NF-KAPPAB REGULATORS SUCH AS B CELL LYMPHOMA 3 PROTEIN (BCL-3), AND EPIGENETIC REGULATORS SUCH AS HISTONE DEACETYLASES, OR THE REPURPOSING OF DRUGS SUCH AS PENTOXIFYLLINE.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
15 6446  76 THERAPEUTIC INSIGHTS IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE PROGRESSION. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED AS A LEADING PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM WORLDWIDE. THROUGH ITS EFFECT ON CARDIOVASCULAR RISK AND END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE, CKD DIRECTLY AFFECTS THE GLOBAL BURDEN OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. CLASSICAL OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF CKD INCLUDES BLOOD PRESSURE CONTROL, TREATMENT OF ALBUMINURIA WITH ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS OR ANGIOTENSIN II RECEPTOR BLOCKERS, AVOIDANCE OF POTENTIAL NEPHROTOXINS AND OBESITY, DRUG DOSING ADJUSTMENTS, AND CARDIOVASCULAR RISK REDUCTION. DIABETES MIGHT ACCOUNT FOR MORE THAN HALF OF CKD BURDEN, AND OBESITY IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PROMPTED FACTOR FOR THIS DISEASE. NEW ANTIHYPERGLYCEMIC DRUGS, SUCH AS SODIUM-GLUCOSE-COTRANSPORTER 2 INHIBITORS HAVE SHOWN TO SLOW THE DECLINE OF GFR, BRINGING ADDITIONAL BENEFIT IN WEIGHT REDUCTION, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND OTHER KIDNEY OUTCOMES. ON THE OTHER HAND, A NEW GENERATION OF NON-STEROIDAL MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST HAS RECENTLY BEEN DEVELOPED TO OBTAIN A SELECTIVE RECEPTOR INHIBITION REDUCING SIDE EFFECTS LIKE HYPERKALEMIA AND THEREBY MAKING THE DRUGS SUITABLE FOR ADMINISTRATION TO CKD PATIENTS. MOREOVER, TWO NEW POTASSIUM-LOWERING THERAPIES HAVE SHOWN TO IMPROVE TOLERANCE, ALLOWING FOR HIGHER DOSAGE OF RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM INHIBITORS AND THEREFORE ENHANCING THEIR NEPHROPROTECTIVE EFFECT. REGARDLESS OF ITS CAUSE, CKD IS CHARACTERIZED BY REDUCED RENAL REGENERATION CAPACITY, MICROVASCULAR DAMAGE, OXIDATIVE STRESS AND INFLAMMATION, RESULTING IN FIBROSIS AND PROGRESSIVE, AND IRREVERSIBLE NEPHRON LOSS. THEREFORE, A HOLISTIC APPROACH SHOULD BE TAKEN TARGETING THE DIVERSE PROCESSES AND BIOLOGICAL CONTEXTS THAT ARE ASSOCIATED WITH CKD PROGRESSION. TO DATE, THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS WHEN TUBULOINTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS IS ALREADY ESTABLISHED HAVE PROVED TO BE INSUFFICIENT, THUS RESEARCH EFFORT SHOULD FOCUS ON UNRAVELING EARLY DISEASE MECHANISMS. AN ARRAY OF NOVEL THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES TARGETING EPIGENETIC REGULATORS ARE NOW UNDERGOING PHASE II OR PHASE III TRIALS AND MIGHT PROVIDE A SIMULTANEOUS REGULATORY ACTIVITY THAT COORDINATELY REGULATE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF CKD PROGRESSION.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
16 2982  56 GENETIC CONSIDERATIONS IN PEDIATRIC CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IN CHILDREN IS AN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS THAT, IN SOME CASES, MAY LEAD TO END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE. THE MAJORITY OF CHILDREN WITH CKD HAVE A CONGENITAL DISORDER OF THE KIDNEY OR UROLOGICAL TRACT ARISING FROM BIRTH. THERE IS STRONG EVIDENCE FOR BOTH A GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC COMPONENT TO PROGRESSION OF CKD. UTILIZATION OF GENE-MAPPING STRATEGIES, RANGING FROM GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES TO SINGLE-NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM ANALYSIS, SERVES TO IDENTIFY POTENTIAL GENETIC VARIANTS THAT MAY LEND TO DISEASE VARIATION. GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES EVALUATING POPULATION-BASED DATA HAVE IDENTIFIED DIFFERENT LOCI ASSOCIATED WITH CKD PROGRESSION. ANALYSIS OF SINGLE-NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS ON AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL SUGGESTS THAT SECONDARY SYSTEMIC SEQUELAE OF CKD ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO DYSFUNCTION OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR-INFLAMMATORY AXIS AND MAY LEAD TO ADVANCED CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE THROUGH ABNORMAL VASCULAR CALCIFICATION AND ACTIVATION OF THE RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM. SIMILARLY, GENETIC VARIANTS AFFECTING CYTOKINE CONTROL, FIBROSIS, AND PARENCHYMAL DEVELOPMENT MAY MODULATE CKD THROUGH DEVELOPMENT AND ACCELERATION OF RENAL INTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS. EPIGENETIC STUDIES EVALUATE MODIFICATION OF THE GENOME THROUGH DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, OR RNA INTERFERENCE, WHICH MAY BE DIRECTLY INFLUENCED BY EXTERNAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS DIRECTING GENOMIC EXPRESSION. LASTLY, IMPROVED UNDERSTANDING OF THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CONTRIBUTION TO CKD PROGRESSION MAY ALLOW PROVIDERS TO IDENTIFY A POPULATION AT ACCELERATED RISK FOR DISEASE PROGRESSION AND APPLY NOVEL THERAPIES TARGETED AT THE GENETIC MECHANISM OF DISEASE.	2016	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
17  932  66 CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE WITH UNKNOWN CAUSE ACROSS THE GLOBAL SPECTRUM. PURPOSE OF REVIEW: IN THE 1990S, A TYPE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE WITH UNKNOWN CAUSE (CKDU) WAS IDENTIFIED IN CENTRAL AMERICA AND SRI LANKA. PATIENTS LACKED HYPERTENSION, DIABETES, GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, OR OTHER USUAL CAUSES OF KIDNEY FAILURE. AFFECTED PATIENTS ARE PREDOMINANTLY MALE AGRICULTURAL WORKERS AGED 20-60 YEARS, LIVING IN ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED AREAS WITH POOR ACCESS TO MEDICAL CARE. PATIENTS TYPICALLY PRESENT LATE AND PROGRESS TO END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE WITHIN 5 YEARS, RESULTING IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HARDSHIP FOR FAMILIES, REGIONS, AND COUNTRIES. THIS REVIEW COVERS THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE FOR THIS DISEASE. RECENT FINDINGS: THE PREVALENCE OF CKDU IS INCREASING IN KNOWN ENDEMIC REGIONS AND ACROSS THE GLOBE, REACHING EPIDEMIC PROPORTIONS. THERE IS PRIMARY TUBULOINTERSTITIAL INJURY WITH SECONDARY GLOMERULAR AND VASCULAR SCLEROSIS. NO DEFINITIVE ETIOLOGIC FACTORS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED, AND THESE MAY VARY OR OVERLAP IN DIFFERENT GEOGRAPHIC LOCATIONS. THE LEADING HYPOTHESES INCLUDE EXPOSURE TO AGROCHEMICALS, HEAVY METALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS, AND KIDNEY INJURY FROM DEHYDRATION/HEAT STRESS. INFECTIONS AND LIFESTYLE FACTORS MAY PLAY A ROLE, BUT ARE LIKELY NOT KEY. GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC FACTORS ARE BEGINNING TO BE EXPLORED. SUMMARY: CKDU IS A LEADING CAUSE OF PREMATURE DEATH IN YOUNG-TO-MIDDLE-AGED ADULTS IN ENDEMIC REGIONS AND HAS BECOME A PUBLIC HEALTH CRISIS. STUDIES ARE UNDERWAY TO INVESTIGATE CLINICAL, EXPOSOME, AND OMICS FACTORS, AND HOPEFULLY WILL PROVIDE INSIGHTS INTO PATHOGENETIC MECHANISMS RESULTING IN BIOMARKER DISCOVERY, PREVENTIVE MEASURES, AND THERAPEUTICS.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
18 1170  76 CONTRIBUTION OF GENETICS AND EPIGENETICS TO PROGRESSION OF KIDNEY FIBROSIS. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) WHICH CAN LEAD TO END-STAGE RENAL FAILURE REMAINS A PRINCIPAL CHALLENGE IN NEPHROLOGY. WHILE MECHANISTIC STUDIES PROVIDED EXTENSIVE INSIGHTS INTO THE COMMON PATHWAYS OF FIBROGENESIS WHICH UNDERLIE THE PROGRESSION OF CKD, THESE PRE-CLINICAL STUDIES FAIL TO FULLY EXPLAIN THE VASTLY DIFFERENT PROGRESSION SLOPES OF INDIVIDUAL PATIENTS. RECENT STUDIES PROVIDE EVIDENCE THAT GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS AND EPIGENETIC VARIATIONS DETERMINE THE INDIVIDUAL SUSCEPTIBILITY OF PATIENTS TO DEVELOP CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE KIDNEY DISEASE. HERE, WE REVIEW RECENT INSIGHTS THAT WERE PROVIDED BY GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES (GWASS), GENE-LINKAGE STUDIES AND EPIGENOME ANALYSIS. THE PROGRESSION OF CKD TOWARDS END-STAGE RENAL FAILURE REMAINS A PRINCIPAL UNSOLVED PROBLEM IN NEPHROLOGY AS EFFECTIVE THERAPIES AND PREDICTIVE TESTS ARE STILL NOT AVAILABLE [ 1, 2]. CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE KIDNEY DISEASE IS CAUSED BY A WIDE RANGE OF DISEASES, WITH DIABETES MELLITUS, HYPERTENSION AND PRIMARY GLOMERULOPATHIES BEING THE MOST COMMON CAUSES IN THE WESTERN WORLD [ 3]. INFECTIONS, PHYSICAL OBSTRUCTION, INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIDES AND GENETIC CYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASES ARE ALSO COMMON CAUSES OF END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE (ESRD) [ 3]. REGARDLESS OF THE PRIMARY UNDERLYING DISEASE, CHRONICALLY INJURED KIDNEYS ARE HISTOMORPHOLOGICALLY CHARACTERIZED BY TUBULOINTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS [ 1]. IN FACT, THE EXTENT OF TUBULOINTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS IS THE BEST PREDICTOR FOR KIDNEY SURVIVAL, IRRESPECTIVE OF THE UNDERLYING DISEASE. FOR THIS REASON, FIBROSIS IS CONSIDERED THE COMMON PATHWAY OF CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE KIDNEY DISEASE [ 1]. FIBROGENESIS IS A PATHOLOGICAL SCARRING PROCESS WHICH INVOLVES ACCUMULATION OF ACTIVATED FIBROBLASTS, EXCESSIVE DEPOSITION OF EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX, FAILED REGENERATION OF TUBULAR EPITHELIUM, MICROVASCULAR RAREFACTION AND (MOSTLY STERILE) INFLAMMATION [ 4]. FIBROGENESIS DEPENDS ON A COMPLEX INTERACTION OF THE INVOLVED CELL TYPES WHICH IS ORCHESTRATED BY AN EXTENSIVE NETWORK OF GROWTH FACTORS AND SIGNALLING PATHWAYS (WHICH ARE REVIEWED EXTENSIVELY ELSEWHERE) [ 1]. IN VIEW OF THE DETAILED MECHANISTIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE PATHWAYS THAT ORCHESTRATE RENAL FIBROGENESIS, IT IS PUZZLING WHY PROGRESSION RATES OF CKD DIFFER DRAMATICALLY AMONG PATIENTS WITH IDENTICAL UNDERLYING DISEASES [ 1, 2]. THE FIBROTIC PATHWAYS ARE KNOWN, BUT THE SWITCHES THAT CONTROL THEIR INTENSITIES AND WHICH DETERMINE THE SPEED AT WHICH FIBROSIS MOVES ALONG THE PROGRESSION SLOPE ARE NOT YET UNDERSTOOD [ 1, 2]. THE CONCEPT THAT GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS ARE THE BASIS FOR INDIVIDUAL PROGRESSION RATES OF CKD IS AN OBVIOUS AND ATTRACTIVE ONE. DISTINCT SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF DIFFERENT MOUSE AND RAT STRAINS TO EXPERIMENTAL CKD ARE A STRONG TESTAMENT OF THE IMPACT OF GENETIC VARIATIONS ON RENAL FIBROGENESIS. IDENTIFICATION OF THE UNDERLYING GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS AND MECHANISTIC PROOF OF THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN THE PROGRESSION OF CKD, HOWEVER, IS AN ONGOING CHALLENGE. THERE ARE TWO BASIC APPROACHES: ONE STRATEGY IS TO PERFORM UNBIASED SCREENING TO IDENTIFY GENES WHICH ARE ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE KIDNEY DISEASE AND TO THEN PROVE THEIR MECHANISTIC RELEVANCE IN EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ('GENOTYPE TO PHENOTYPE APPROACH'). THE SECOND STRATEGY IS TO SELECTIVELY ANALYSE POLYMORPHISMS OF GENES WHICH HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED IN MECHANISTIC STUDIES AS DRIVERS OF RENAL FIBROGENESIS WITH REGARD TO THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH CKD (PHENOTYPE TO GENOTYPE APPROACH). THE PUZZLING OBSERVATION, HOWEVER, IS THAT GENETIC ANALYSIS AND MECHANISTIC STUDIES SO FAR RARELY COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER. THE CURRENT STATE OF AFFAIRS IS REVIEWED IN MORE DETAIL BELOW.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
19 2148  68 EPIGENETIC MARKERS OF RENAL FUNCTION IN AFRICAN AMERICANS. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IS AN INCREASING CONCERN IN THE UNITED STATES DUE TO ITS RAPIDLY RISING PREVALENCE, PARTICULARLY AMONG AFRICAN AMERICANS. EPIGENETIC DNA METHYLATION MARKERS ARE BECOMING IMPORTANT BIOMARKERS OF CHRONIC DISEASES SUCH AS CKD. TO BETTER UNDERSTAND HOW THESE METHYLATION MARKERS PLAY A ROLE IN KIDNEY FUNCTION, WE MEASURED 26,428 DNA METHYLATION SITES IN 972 AFRICAN AMERICANS FROM THE GENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY NETWORK OF ARTERIOPATHY (GENOA) STUDY. WE THEN EVALUATED (1) WHETHER EPIGENETIC MARKERS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ESTIMATED GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (EGFR), (2) WHETHER THE SIGNIFICANTLY ASSOCIATED MARKERS ARE ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH TRADITIONAL RISK FACTORS AND/OR NOVEL BIOMARKERS FOR EGFR, AND (3) HOW MUCH ADDITIONAL VARIATION IN EGFR IS EXPLAINED BY EPIGENETIC MARKERS BEYOND ESTABLISHED RISK FACTORS AND BIOMARKERS. THE MAJORITY OF METHYLATION MARKERS MOST SIGNIFICANTLY ASSOCIATED WITH EGFR (24 OUT OF THE TOP 30) APPEARED TO FUNCTION, AT LEAST IN PART, THROUGH PATHWAYS RELATED TO AGING, INFLAMMATION, OR CHOLESTEROL. HOWEVER, SIX EPIGENETIC MARKERS WERE STILL ABLE TO SIGNIFICANTLY PREDICT EGFR AFTER ADJUSTMENT FOR OTHER RISK FACTORS. THIS WORK SHOWS THAT EPIGENETIC MARKERS MAY OFFER VALUABLE NEW INSIGHT INTO THE COMPLEX PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CKD IN AFRICAN AMERICANS.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
20 1516  69 DNA METHYLATION AS A BIOMARKER OF AGING IN EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES. CANCER IS LARGELY AN AGING DISEASE. ACCELERATED BIOLOGICAL AGING MAY BE THE STRONGEST PREDICTOR OF CANCER AND OTHER CHRONIC DISEASE RISKS. IN THE ABSENCE OF RELIABLE AND QUANTIFIABLE BIOMARKERS OF AGING TO DATE, IT HAS LONG BEEN OBSERVED THAT TUMORIGENESIS SHARES DISTINCT EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS WITH THE AGING PROCESS. RECENTLY, EPIGENETIC AGE ESTIMATES HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED BASED ON THE AVAILABILITY OF GENOME-WIDE DNA METHYLATION PROFILES, BY APPLYING IN THE PREDICTION FORMULA THE METHYLATION LEVEL AT A SUBSET OF HIGHLY PREDICTIVE METHYLATION SITES, CALLED EPIGENETIC CLOCK. THESE DNA METHYLATION AGE ESTIMATES HAVE PRODUCED REMARKABLY STRONG CORRELATIONS WITH CHRONOLOGICAL AGE, WITH A SMALL DEVIATION AND HIGH REPRODUCIBILITY ACROSS DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS AND STUDY POPULATIONS. MOREOVER, AN INCREASING NUMBER OF EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED AN INDEPENDENT ASSOCIATION OF DNA METHYLATION AGE OR THE EXTENT OF ACCELERATION WITH MORTALITY AND VARIOUS AGING-RELATED CONDITIONS, EVEN AFTER ACCOUNTING FOR DIFFERENCES IN CHRONOLOGICAL AGE AND OTHER RISK FACTORS. ALTHOUGH EPIGENETIC PROFILES ARE KNOWN TO BE TISSUE-SPECIFIC, BOTH TARGET TISSUE- AND MULTIPLE TISSUE-DERIVED ESTIMATES APPEAR TO PERFORM WELL TO CAPTURE WHAT IS THOUGHT TO BE THE CUMULATIVE EPIGENETIC DRIFT THAT REPRESENTS A MULTIFACTORIAL DEGENERATIVE PROCESS ACROSS TISSUES AND ORGANISMS. FURTHER REFINEMENT OF THE EPIGENETIC AGE ESTIMATES IS ANTICIPATED OVER TIME TO ACCOMMODATE A BETTER TECHNOLOGICAL COVERAGE OF THE METHYLOME AND A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE BIOLOGY UNDERLYING PREDICTIVE REGIONS. EPIDEMIOLOGIC PRINCIPLES WILL REMAIN CRITICAL FOR THE EVALUATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS INVOLVING, FOR EXAMPLE, DIFFERENT STUDY POPULATIONS, DESIGN, FOLLOW-UP TIME, AND QUALITY OF COVARIATE DATA. OVERALL, THE EPIGENETIC AGE ESTIMATES ARE AN EXCITING DEVELOPMENT WITH USEFUL IMPLICATIONS FOR BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH OF HEALTHY AGING AND DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL.	2018