1 3775 122 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ARSENIC-INDUCED TOXICITY AND NUTRITION IN EARLY LIFE. EXPOSURE TO ARSENIC THROUGH DRINKING WATER IS A MAJOR PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM AFFECTING MOST COUNTRIES, ALTHOUGH THE SITUATION IS PARTICULARLY SEVERE IN LOW-INCOME NATIONS. THE HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF CHRONIC ARSENIC EXPOSURE INCLUDE INCREASED RISK FOR VARIOUS FORMS OF CANCER AND NUMEROUS NONCANCER EFFECTS, INCLUDING DIABETES, SKIN DISEASES, CHRONIC COUGH, AND TOXIC EFFECTS ON LIVER, KIDNEY, CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, AND PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS. IN RECENT YEARS INCREASING REPORTS OF EFFECTS ON FETAL AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT HAVE APPEARED. THERE SEEMS TO BE A WIDE VARIATION IN SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ARSENIC TOXICITY, WHICH IS LIKELY TO BE RELATED TO FACTORS SUCH AS VARIATION IN ARSENIC METABOLISM, NUTRITION, HOST-RELATED DEFENSE MECHANISMS, AND GENETIC PREDISPOSITION. THE MAIN MECHANISMS OF ARSENIC-NUTRITION INTERACTIONS INCLUDE ARSENIC-INDUCED OXIDATIVE STRESS, WHICH REQUIRES NUTRIENT-DEPENDENT DEFENSE SYSTEMS, AND ARSENIC METABOLISM (METHYLATION) VIA 1-CARBON METABOLISM, WHICH REQUIRES METHYL GROUPS, FOLIC ACID, VITAMIN B-12, AND BETAINE FOR THE REMETHYLATION OF HOMOCYSTEINE TO METHIONINE. AN EFFICIENT FIRST METHYLATION STEP IN COMBINATION WITH A SLOW SECOND METHYLATION STEP SEEMS TO BE MOST CRITICAL FROM A TOXICOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW. A THIRD MODE OF ARSENIC-NUTRITION INTERACTION INVOLVES EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AND FETAL PROGRAMMING VIA DNA METHYLATION.	2007	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
2 3210  36 HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH PRE- AND PERINATAL EXPOSURE TO ARSENIC. INORGANIC ARSENIC IS A WELL-ESTABLISHED HUMAN CARCINOGEN, ABLE TO INDUCE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS. MORE THAN 200 MILLION PEOPLE WORLDWIDE ARE EXPOSED TO ARSENIC CONCENTRATIONS IN DRINKING WATER EXCEEDING THE RECOMMENDED WHO THRESHOLD (10MUG/L). ADDITIONALLY, CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO LEVELS BELOW THIS THRESHOLD IS KNOWN TO RESULT IN LONG-TERM HEALTH EFFECTS IN HUMANS. THE ARSENIC-RELATED HEALTH EFFECTS IN HUMANS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ITS BIOTRANSFORMATION PROCESS, WHEREBY THE RESULTING METABOLITES CAN INDUCE MOLECULAR DAMAGE THAT ACCUMULATES OVER TIME. THE EFFECTS DERIVED FROM THESE ALTERATIONS INCLUDE GENOMIC INSTABILITY ASSOCIATED WITH OXIDATIVE DAMAGE, ALTERATION OF GENE EXPRESSION (INCLUDING CODING AND NON-CODING RNAS), GLOBAL AND LOCALIZED EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING, AND HISTONE POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS. THESE ALTERATIONS DIRECTLY AFFECT MOLECULAR PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN THE ONSET AND PROGRESSION OF MANY CONDITIONS THAT CAN ARISE EVEN DECADES AFTER THE EXPOSURE OCCURS. IMPORTANTLY, ARSENIC METABOLITES GENERATED DURING ITS BIOTRANSFORMATION CAN ALSO PASS THROUGH THE PLACENTAL BARRIER, RESULTING IN FETAL EXPOSURE TO THIS CARCINOGEN AT SIMILAR LEVELS TO THOSE OF THE MOTHER. AS SUCH, MORE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF THE ARSENIC-INDUCED MOLECULAR DAMAGE CAN BE OBSERVED AS DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS ON FETAL DEVELOPMENT, PREGNANCY, AND BIRTH OUTCOMES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE FOCUS ON THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC DAMAGE ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO LOW LEVELS OF ARSENIC, PARTICULARLY THOSE AFFECTING EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES. WE ALSO PRESENT HOW THESE ALTERATIONS OCCURRING DURING EARLY LIFE CAN IMPACT THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN DISEASES IN ADULT LIFE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
3 5361  35 RECENT ADVANCES IN ARSENIC RESEARCH: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY AND SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATION. ARSENIC CONTAMINATION IN DRINKING WATER AND ASSOCIATED ADVERSE OUTCOMES ARE ONE OF THE MAJOR HEALTH ISSUES IN MORE THAN 50 COUNTRIES WORLDWIDE. THE SCENARIO IS GETTING EVEN MORE DETRIMENTAL WITH INCREASING NUMBER OF AFFECTED PEOPLE AND NEWER SITES REPORTED FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD. APART FROM DRINKING WATER, THE PRESENCE OF ARSENIC HAS BEEN FOUND IN VARIOUS OTHER DIETARY SOURCES. CHRONIC ARSENIC TOXICITY AFFECTS MULTIPLE PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND MAY CAUSE MALIGNANCIES LEADING TO DEATH. EXPOSED INDIVIDUALS, RESIDING IN THE SAME AREA, DEVELOPED DIFFERENTIAL DERMATOLOGICAL LESION PHENOTYPES AND VARIED SUSCEPTIBILITY TOWARD VARIOUS OTHER ARSENIC-INDUCED DISEASE RISK, EVEN AFTER CONSUMING EQUIVALENT AMOUNT OF ARSENIC FROM THE SIMILAR SOURCE, OVER THE SAME DURATION OF TIME. RESEARCHES SO FAR INDICATE THAT DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN ARSENIC-INDUCED DISEASE MANIFESTATION. IN THIS COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW, WE HAVE IDENTIFIED MAJOR POPULATION-BASED STUDIES OF THE LAST 20 YEARS, INDICATING POSSIBLE CAUSES OF DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY EMPHASIZING ARSENIC METHYLATION CAPACITY, VARIATION IN HOST GENOME (SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM), AND INDIVIDUAL EPIGENETIC PATTERN (DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, AND MIRNA EXPRESSION). HOLISTIC MULTIDISCIPLINARY STRATEGIES NEED TO BE IMPLEMENTED WITH FEW SUSTAINABLE YET COST-EFFECTIVE SOLUTIONS LIKE ALTERNATIVE WATER SOURCE, TREATMENT OF ARSENIC-CONTAMINATED WATER, NEW ADAPTATIONS IN IRRIGATION SYSTEM, SIMPLE MODIFICATIONS IN COOKING STRATEGY, AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTATIONS TO COMBAT THIS MENACE. OUR REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE PRESENT PERSPECTIVES OF ARSENIC RESEARCH WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE PROBABLE CAUSES OF DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY TOWARD CHRONIC ARSENIC TOXICITY AND SUSTAINABLE REMEDIATION STRATEGIES.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
4 1917  42 ENVIRONMENTAL ARSENIC EXPOSURE: FROM GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY TO PATHOGENESIS. MORE THAN 200 MILLION PEOPLE IN 70 COUNTRIES ARE EXPOSED TO ARSENIC THROUGH DRINKING WATER. CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO THIS METALLOID HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH THE ONSET OF MANY DISEASES, INCLUDING CANCER. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE SUPPORTS ITS CARCINOGENIC POTENTIAL, HOWEVER, DETAILED MOLECULAR MECHANISMS REMAIN TO BE ELUCIDATED. DESPITE THE GLOBAL MAGNITUDE OF THIS PROBLEM, NOT ALL INDIVIDUALS FACE THE SAME RISK. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO THE TOXIC EFFECTS OF ARSENIC IS INFLUENCED BY ALTERATIONS IN GENES INVOLVED IN ARSENIC METABOLISM, AS WELL AS BIOLOGICAL FACTORS, SUCH AS AGE, GENDER AND NUTRITION. MOREOVER, CHRONIC ARSENIC EXPOSURE RESULTS IN SEVERAL GENOTOXIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS TIGHTLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE ARSENIC BIOTRANSFORMATION PROCESS, RESULTING IN AN INCREASED CANCER RISK. IN THIS REVIEW, WE: 1) REVIEW THE ROLES OF INTER-INDIVIDUAL DNA-LEVEL VARIATIONS INFLUENCING THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ARSENIC-INDUCED CARCINOGENESIS; 2) DISCUSS THE CONTRIBUTION OF ARSENIC BIOTRANSFORMATION TO CANCER INITIATION; 3) PROVIDE INSIGHTS INTO EMERGING RESEARCH AREAS AND THE CHALLENGES IN THE FIELD; AND 4) COMPILE A RESOURCE OF PUBLICLY AVAILABLE ARSENIC-RELATED DNA-LEVEL VARIATIONS, TRANSCRIPTOME AND METHYLATION DATA. UNDERSTANDING THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE AND ITS SUBSEQUENT HEALTH EFFECTS WILL SUPPORT EFFORTS TO REDUCE THE WORLDWIDE HEALTH BURDEN AND ENCOURAGE THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING ARSENIC-RELATED DISEASES IN THE ERA OF PERSONALIZED MEDICINE.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
5 1371  30 DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE: NEW INSIGHTS. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT SMALL CHANGES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ENVIRONMENT CAN INDUCE PHENOTYPIC CHANGES AFFECTING AN INDIVIDUAL'S RESPONSES TO THEIR LATER ENVIRONMENT. THESE MAY ALTER THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME OR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. RECENT RESEARCH SHOWS THAT ANIMALS EXPOSED TO SUCH A MISMATCH BETWEEN PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT DEVELOP OBESITY, REDUCED ACTIVITY, LEPTIN AND INSULIN RESISTANCE, ELEVATED BLOOD PRESSURE AND VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION. EPIGENETIC PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED IN SUCH EFFECTS, TARGETED TO PROMOTER REGIONS OF SPECIFIC GENES IN SPECIFIC TISSUES. SUCH FINE CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION SUGGESTS THAT THE MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN RETAINED THROUGH EVOLUTION THROUGH THEIR ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE, RATHER THAN REPRESENTING EXTREME EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION AKIN TO TERATOGENESIS. THERE MAY BE ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CUE INDUCING A PHENOTYPIC CHANGE IN GENERATIONS BEYOND THE IMMEDIATE PREGNANCY, AND A RANGE OF DATA THAT SUPPORT THIS CONCEPT. IN ANIMALS, EPIGENETIC EFFECTS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION CAN BE PASSED TO SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS, INCLUDING ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS, MAY INDUCE GREATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE, EVEN AT LOW EXPOSURE LEVELS, IF THEY AFFECT SUCH NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL EPIGENETIC PROCESSES. APPROPRIATE INTERVENTIONS MAY HAVE LONG-TERM MULTIGENERATIONAL EFFECTS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
6  633  35 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE, AND REAGENTS THAT CAN AMELIORATE ARSENIC DAMAGE IN VIVO. THROUGH CONTAMINATED DIET, WATER, AND OTHER FORMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE, ARSENIC AFFECTS HUMAN HEALTH. THERE ARE MANY U.S. AND WORLDWIDE "HOT SPOTS" WHERE THE ARSENIC LEVEL IN PUBLIC WATER EXCEEDS THE MAXIMUM EXPOSURE LIMIT. THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CHRONIC ARSENIC EXPOSURE INCLUDE GENERATION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS), LEADING TO OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DNA DAMAGE, EPIGENETIC DNA MODIFICATION, INDUCTION OF GENOMIC INSTABILITY, AND INFLAMMATION AND IMMUNOMODULATION, ALL OF WHICH CAN INITIATE CARCINOGENESIS. HIGH ARSENIC EXPOSURE IS EPIDEMIOLOGICALLY ASSOCIATED WITH SKIN, LUNG, BLADDER, LIVER, KIDNEY AND PANCREATIC CANCER, AND CARDIOVASCULAR, NEURONAL, AND OTHER DISEASES. THIS REVIEW BRIEFLY SUMMARIZES THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL CANCER STUDIES WORLDWIDE, AND PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW FOR EMERGING RODENT-BASED STUDIES OF REAGENTS THAT CAN AMELIORATE THE EFFECTS OF ARSENIC EXPOSURE IN VIVO. THESE REAGENTS MAY BE TRANSLATED TO HUMAN POPULATIONS FOR DISEASE PREVENTION. WE PROPOSE THE IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPING A BIOMARKER-BASED PRECISION PREVENTION APPROACH FOR THE HEALTH ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH ARSENIC EXPOSURE THAT AFFECTS MILLIONS OF PEOPLE WORLDWIDE.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
7 2655  40 EPIMUTAGENESIS: A PROSPECTIVE MECHANISM TO REMEDIATE ARSENIC-INDUCED TOXICITY. ARSENIC TOXICITY IS A GLOBAL ISSUE, ADDRESSED BY THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION AS ONE OF THE MAJOR NATURAL CALAMITIES FACED BY HUMANS. MORE THAN 137 MILLION INDIVIDUALS IN 70 NATIONS ARE AFFECTED BY ARSENIC MAINLY THROUGH DRINKING WATER AND ALSO THROUGH DIET. CHRONIC ARSENIC EXPOSURE LEADS TO VARIOUS TYPES OF PATHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL END POINTS IN HUMANS INCLUDING CANCERS. ARSENIC, A XENOBIOTIC SUBSTANCE, IS BIOTRANSFORMED IN THE BODY TO ITS METHYLATED SPECIES BY USING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL S-ADENOSYL METHIONINE (SAM). SAM DICTATES METHYLATION STATUS OF THE GENOME AND ARSENIC METABOLISM LEADS TO DEPLETION OF SAM LEADING TO AN EPIGENETIC DISEQUILIBRIUM. SINCE EPIGENETICS IS ONE OF THE MAJOR PHENOMENON AT THE INTERFACE BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH IMPACT, ITS DISEQUILIBRIUM BY ARSENIC INFLICTS UPON THE CHROMATIN COMPACTION, GENE EXPRESSION, GENOMIC STABILITY AND A HOST OF BIOMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS, THE INTERACTOME WITHIN THE CELL. SINCE ARSENIC IS NOT MUTAGENIC BUT IS CARCINOGENIC IN NATURE, ARSENIC INDUCED EPIMUTAGENESIS HAS COME TO THE FOREFRONT SINCE IT DETERMINES THE TRANSCRIPTIONAL AND GENOMIC INTEGRITY OF THE CELL. ARSENIC TOXICITY BRINGS FORTH SEVERAL PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS LIKE DERMATOLOGICAL NON-CANCEROUS, PRE-CANCEROUS AND CANCEROUS LESIONS, PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY, DNA DAMAGE, RESPIRATORY DISORDERS AND CANCERS OF SEVERAL INTERNAL ORGANS. RECENTLY, SEVERAL DISEASES OF SIMILAR MANIFESTATIONS HAVE BEEN EXPLAINED WITH THE RELEVANT EPIGENETIC PERSPECTIVES REGARDING THE POSSIBLE MOLECULAR MECHANISM FOR THEIR ONSET. HENCE, IN THE CURRENT REVIEW, WE COMPREHENSIVELY TRY TO INTERCALATE THE INFORMATION ON ARSENIC-INDUCED EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS OF DNA, HISTONES AND MICRORNA SO AS TO UNDERSTAND WHETHER THE ARSENIC-INDUCED TOXIC MANIFESTATIONS ARE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE EPIGENETIC CHANGES. WE HIGHLIGHT THE NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE ASPECT OF EPIMUTAGENESIS AND SUBSEQUENT ALTERATIONS IN THE CELLULAR INTERACTOME DUE TO ARSENIC-INDUCED MOLECULAR CHANGES, WHICH MAY BE UTILIZED TO DEVELOP PUTATIVE THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES TARGETING BOTH OXIDATIVE POTENTIAL AND EPIMUTAGENESIS IN HUMANS.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
8 6781  42 [BREATHING: AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH - PART III]. THE THIRD PART OF THE DGP STATEMENT INTRODUCES THE CURRENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE ON LESS STUDIED HEALTH OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION: THE NEGATIVE IMPACT ON METABOLISM LEADING TO IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND DIABETES AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND DELAYED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN CHILDREN. FURTHERMORE, PRENATAL EXPOSURE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON MOTHER AND CHILD ARE ADDRESSED. FINALLY, THE CURRENTLY DISCUSSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ARE DESCRIBED.DIFFERING, BUT OFTEN COMPLEMENTARY BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CREATE THE BASIS FOR THE DIVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES CAUSED BY AIR POLLUTION. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND A SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IN THE LUNGS AND ON A SYSTEMIC LEVEL ("LOW-GRADE SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION") ARE CONSIDERED TO BE KEY MECHANISMS. THEY PROMOTE SECONDARY ALTERATIONS IN THE BODY, SUCH AS VASCULAR OR METABOLIC PROCESSES, AND MAY ALSO RESULT IN THE CURRENTLY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA OR NEUROINFLAMMATION. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLUBLE PARTICULATE MATTER AND THE ROLE OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES TRANSLOCATED ACROSS BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES INTO BLOOD VESSEL AND TRANSPORTED VIA THE CIRCULATION TO SECONDARY TARGET ORGANS, SUCH AS LIVER, BRAIN OR THE FETUS, ARE INTENSIVELY DISCUSSED.DIABETES IS ONE OF THE LEADING CHRONIC DISEASES WORLDWIDE, WITH A PREVALENCE OF ALMOST 14 % IN GERMANY. ALTHOUGH LIFESTYLE FACTORS ARE THE MAIN CAUSES, CURRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION MAY ADDITIONALLY INCREASE THE RISK FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR A CAUSAL ROLE OF AIR POLLUTION IS PROVIDED BY STUDIES ADDRESSING THE REGULATION OF THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS IN METABOLICALLY HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS, INSULIN SENSITIVITY, OR PREGNANCY-RELATED DIABETES. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES PROVIDE FURTHER SUPPORT FOR PLAUSIBLE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, PROSPECTIVE STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO GAIN MORE EVIDENCE, TAKING MULTIPLE LIFESTYLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SUCH AS GREEN SPACE AND NOISE, AND AN IMPROVED INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT INTO ACCOUNT.THE AGING POPULATION HAS AN INCREASED RISK OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. FIRST STUDIES POINT TOWARDS A CONTRIBUTION OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, SPECIFICALLY BY PARTICULATE MATTER. SEVERAL STUDIES REPORT ITS ASSOCIATION WITH DECREASED NEUROCOGNITIVE CAPACITY OR AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DEMENTIA OR ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADULTS. HOWEVER, THE STUDIES ARE INHOMOGENEOUS REGARDING DESIGN, EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT RESULTS. WITH RESPECT TO THE INFLUENCE ON NEUROCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN, FIRST STUDIES SUGGEST AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION, E. G. AT SCHOOL, AND DELAYED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.EVEN THOUGH THE EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS DURING PREGNANCY IS STILL HETEROGENEOUS, THE STUDIES GENERALLY POINT TOWARDS AN ADVERSE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL AND FETAL ORGANISMS. THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE EXISTS FOR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, WITH SMALL EFFECT SIZES OF ONLY SOME GRAMS, AND FOR A HIGHER INCIDENCE OF REDUCED BIRTH WEIGHT (< 2500 G). AN INCREASED RISK FOR GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION AND PREECLAMPSIA UNDERSCORES THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL ORGANISM. HOWEVER, THE CURRENT BODY OF EVIDENCE DOES NOT YET ALLOW A FINAL CONCLUSION ON THE INFLUENCE OF INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION REGARDING EARLY CHILDHOOD LUNG FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGIES, PARTICULARLY IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS HARD TO DISTINGUISH IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POSTNATAL EXPOSURE.	2019	

9 6133  42 THE EPIGENETIC ROLE OF VITAMIN C IN NEURODEVELOPMENT. THE MATERNAL DIET DURING PREGNANCY IS A KEY DETERMINANT OF OFFSPRING HEALTH. EARLY STUDIES HAVE LINKED POOR MATERNAL NUTRITION DURING GESTATION WITH A PROPENSITY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC CONDITIONS IN OFFSPRING. THESE CONDITIONS INCLUDE CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, TYPE 2 DIABETES AND EVEN COMPROMISED MENTAL HEALTH. WHILE MULTIPLE FACTORS MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THESE OUTCOMES, DISTURBED EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING DURING EARLY DEVELOPMENT IS ONE POTENTIAL BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM. THE EPIGENOME IS PROGRAMMED PRIMARILY IN UTERO, AND DURING THIS TIME, THE DEVELOPING FETUS IS HIGHLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SUCH AS NUTRITIONAL INSULTS. DURING NEURODEVELOPMENT, EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING COORDINATES THE FORMATION OF PRIMITIVE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURES, NEUROGENESIS, AND NEUROPLASTICITY. DYSREGULATED EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING HAS BEEN IMPLICATED IN THE AETIOLOGY OF SEVERAL NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS SUCH AS TATTON-BROWN-RAHMAN SYNDROME. ACCORDINGLY, THERE IS GREAT INTEREST IN DETERMINING HOW MATERNAL NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY IN PREGNANCY MIGHT AFFECT THE EPIGENETIC STATUS OF OFFSPRING, AND HOW SUCH INFLUENCES MAY PRESENT PHENOTYPICALLY. IN RECENT YEARS, A NUMBER OF EPIGENETIC ENZYMES THAT ARE ACTIVE DURING EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT HAVE BEEN FOUND TO REQUIRE VITAMIN C AS A COFACTOR. THESE ENZYMES INCLUDE THE TEN-ELEVEN TRANSLOCATION METHYLCYTOSINE DIOXYGENASES (TETS) AND THE JUMONJI C DOMAIN-CONTAINING HISTONE LYSINE DEMETHYLASES THAT CATALYSE THE OXIDATIVE REMOVAL OF METHYL GROUPS ON CYTOSINES AND HISTONE LYSINE RESIDUES, RESPECTIVELY. THESE ENZYMES ARE INTEGRAL TO EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND HAVE FUNDAMENTAL ROLES IN CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION, THE MAINTENANCE OF PLURIPOTENCY AND DEVELOPMENT. THE DEPENDENCE OF THESE ENZYMES ON VITAMIN C FOR OPTIMAL CATALYTIC ACTIVITY ILLUSTRATES A POTENTIALLY CRITICAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE NUTRIENT DURING MAMMALIAN DEVELOPMENT. THESE INSIGHTS ALSO HIGHLIGHT A POTENTIAL RISK ASSOCIATED WITH VITAMIN C INSUFFICIENCY DURING PREGNANCY. THE LINK BETWEEN VITAMIN C INSUFFICIENCY AND DEVELOPMENT IS PARTICULARLY APPARENT IN THE CONTEXT OF NEURODEVELOPMENT AND HIGH VITAMIN C CONCENTRATIONS IN THE BRAIN ARE INDICATIVE OF IMPORTANT FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS IN THIS ORGAN. ACCORDINGLY, THIS REVIEW CONSIDERS THE EVIDENCE FOR THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF MATERNAL VITAMIN C STATUS ON NEURODEVELOPMENTAL EPIGENETICS.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
10 3582  28 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
11 1801  35 EFFECT OF MATERNAL DIET ON THE EPIGENOME: IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN METABOLIC DISEASE. THE RAPID INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES OVER THE PAST TWO DECADES CANNOT BE EXPLAINED SOLELY BY GENETIC AND ADULT LIFESTYLE FACTORS. THERE IS NOW CONSIDERABLE EVIDENCE THAT THE FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT ALSO STRONGLY INFLUENCES THE RISK OF DEVELOPING SUCH DISEASES IN LATER LIFE. HUMAN STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT LOW BIRTH WEIGHT IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF CVD, TYPE II DIABETES, OBESITY AND HYPERTENSION, ALTHOUGH RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT OVER-NUTRITION IN EARLY LIFE CAN ALSO INCREASE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FUTURE METABOLIC DISEASE. THESE FINDINGS HAVE BEEN REPLICATED IN A VARIETY OF ANIMAL MODELS, WHICH HAVE SHOWN THAT BOTH MATERNAL UNDER- AND OVER-NUTRITION CAN INDUCE PERSISTENT CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION AND METABOLISM WITHIN THE OFFSPRING. THE MECHANISM BY WHICH THE MATERNAL NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT INDUCES SUCH CHANGES IS BEGINNING TO BE UNDERSTOOD AND INVOLVES THE ALTERED EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF SPECIFIC GENES. THE DEMONSTRATION OF A ROLE FOR ALTERED EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF GENES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL INDUCTION OF CHRONIC DISEASES RAISES THE POSSIBILITY THAT NUTRITIONAL OR PHARMACEUTICAL INTERVENTIONS MAY BE USED TO MODIFY LONG-TERM CARDIO-METABOLIC DISEASE RISK AND COMBAT THIS RAPID RISE IN CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
12 1932  35 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES: AN UNDERRECOGNIZED CONTRIBUTION TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES. PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE TO WHICH EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS) HAVE BEEN VERY CONSERVATIVE AND HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY UNDERESTIMATED THE ACTUAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR AT LEAST TWO REASONS. FIRSTLY, MOST PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE EXCLUDED THE CONTRIBUTION OF LIFESTYLE BEHAVIORAL RISK FACTORS, BUT THESE USUALLY INVOLVE SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS THAT INCREASE RISK OF DISEASE. SECONDLY, EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE TO CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IS NOW CLEARLY ASSOCIATED WITH AN ELEVATED RISK OF SEVERAL DISEASES LATER IN LIFE, BUT THESE CONNECTIONS ARE OFTEN DIFFICULT TO DISCERN. THIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE FOR ASTHMA AND NEURODEVELOPMENTAL CONDITIONS, BUT THERE IS ALSO A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY AND CHRONIC DISEASES. MOST CANCERS ARE CAUSED BY ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN GENETICALLY SUSCEPTIBLE INDIVIDUALS. IN ADDITION, NEW INFORMATION SHOWS SIGNIFICANT ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES AND DIABETES AND EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS PRESENT IN AIR, FOOD, AND WATER. THESE RELATIONSHIPS LIKELY REFLECT THE COMBINATION OF EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AND GENE INDUCTION. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE TO NCDS THAN PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE SUGGESTED. PREVENTION NEEDS TO SHIFT FOCUS FROM INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY AND AN UNDERSTANDING THAT EFFECTIVE PREVENTION OF NCDS ULTIMATELY RELIES ON IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE EXPOSURE TO MODIFIABLE RISKS.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
13 3848  32 IS EPIGENETICS AN IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND ADULT DISEASE? BACKGROUND: EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS PROVIDE ONE POTENTIAL EXPLANATION FOR HOW ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES IN EARLY LIFE CAUSE LONG-TERM CHANGES IN CHRONIC DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY. WHEREAS EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION IS INCREASINGLY IMPLICATED IN VARIOUS RARE DEVELOPMENTAL SYNDROMES AND CANCER, THE ROLE OF EPIGENETICS IN COMPLEX CHRONIC DISEASES, SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, TYPE 2 DIABETES AND OBESITY, REMAINS LARGELY UNCHARACTERIZED. EXTENSIVE WORK IN ANIMAL MODELS IS REQUIRED TO DEVELOP SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES THAT CAN BE PRACTICABLY TESTED IN HUMANS. ANIMAL MODELS: WE HAVE DEVELOPED A MOUSE MODEL SHOWING THAT METHYL DONOR SUPPLEMENTATION PREVENTS TRANSGENERATIONAL AMPLIFICATION OF OBESITY, SUGGESTING A ROLE FOR DNA METHYLATION IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ESTABLISHMENT OF BODY WEIGHT REGULATION. CONCLUSIONS: COUPLING SUCH MODELS WITH RECENTLY DEVELOPED EPIGENOMIC TECHNOLOGIES SHOULD ULTIMATELY ENABLE US TO DETERMINE IF EPIGENETICS IS AN IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND ADULT DISEASE.	2009	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
14 2495  38 EPIGENETICS AND DOHAD: FROM BASICS TO BIRTH AND BEYOND. DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) IS THE STUDY OF HOW THE EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT CAN IMPACT THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASES FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADULTHOOD AND THE MECHANISMS INVOLVED. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS AND NON-CODING RNAS ARE INVOLVED IN MEDIATING HOW EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS LATER HEALTH. THIS REVIEW IS A SUMMARY OF THE EPIGENETICS AND DOHAD WORKSHOP HELD AT THE 2016 DOHAD SOCIETY OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND CONFERENCE. OUR EXTENSIVE KNOWLEDGE OF HOW THE EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS LATER RISK FOR CHRONIC DISEASE WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE WITHOUT ANIMAL MODELS. IN THIS REVIEW WE HIGHLIGHT SOME ANIMAL MODEL EXAMPLES THAT DEMONSTRATE HOW AN ADVERSE EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE RESULTS IN EPIGENETIC AND GENE EXPRESSION CHANGES THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE LATER IN LIFE. TYPE 2 DIABETES AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE ARE CHRONIC DISEASES WITH AN INCREASING INCIDENCE DUE TO THE INCREASED NUMBER OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS THAT ARE OBESE. EPIGENETIC CHANGES SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH METABOLIC HEALTH MEASURES AND POTENTIALLY PREDICT FUTURE METABOLIC HEALTH STATUS. ALTHOUGH MORE DIFFICULT TO ELUCIDATE IN HUMANS, RECENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT DNA METHYLATION MAY BE ONE OF THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT MEDIATES THE EFFECTS OF EARLY LIFE EXPOSURES ON LATER LIFE RISK OF OBESITY AND OBESITY RELATED DISEASES. FINALLY, WE DISCUSS THE ROLE OF THE MICROBIOME AND HOW IT IS A NEW PLAYER IN DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING AND MEDIATING EARLY LIFE EXPOSURES ON LATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
15 1155  31 CONSIDERING MATERNAL DIETARY MODULATORS FOR EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND PROGRAMMING OF THE FETAL EPIGENOME. FETAL LIFE IS CHARACTERIZED BY A TREMENDOUS PLASTICITY AND ABILITY TO RESPOND TO VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL AND LIFESTYLE FACTORS, INCLUDING MATERNAL NUTRITION. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROLE OF DIETARY FACTORS THAT CAN MODULATE AND RESHAPE THE CELLULAR EPIGENOME DURING DEVELOPMENT, INCLUDING METHYL GROUP DONORS (E.G., FOLATE, CHOLINE) AND BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS (E.G., POLYPHENOLS) IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE; HOWEVER, THERE IS INSUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGE OF A PARTICULAR EFFECT OF EACH TYPE OF MODULATOR AND/OR THEIR COMBINATION ON FETAL LIFE. TO ENHANCE THE QUALITY AND SAFETY OF FOOD PRODUCTS FOR PROPER FETAL HEALTH AND DISEASE PREVENTION IN LATER LIFE, A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF DIETARY EPIGENETIC MODULATORS DURING THE CRITICAL PRENATAL PERIOD IS NECESSARY. THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE INFLUENCE OF MATERNAL DIETARY COMPONENTS ON DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, AND MICRORNAS, AND SUMMARIZES CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE EFFECT AND IMPORTANCE OF DIETARY COMPONENTS ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT CONTROL THE PROPER EXPRESSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION. EVIDENCE REVEALS THAT SOME COMPONENTS IN THE MATERNAL DIET CAN DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY AFFECT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. UNDERSTANDING THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF HOW EARLY-LIFE NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS THE EPIGENOME DURING DEVELOPMENT IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE FOR THE SUCCESSFUL PREVENTION OF ADULT CHRONIC DISEASES THROUGH OPTIMAL MATERNAL NUTRITION.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
16 3771  36 INTER- AND TRANSGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE: EVIDENCE IN ASTHMA AND COPD? EVIDENCE IS NOW EMERGING THAT EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENT CAN HAVE LIFELONG EFFECTS ON METABOLIC, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND PULMONARY FUNCTION IN OFFSPRING, A CONCEPT ALSO KNOWN AS FETAL OR DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING. IN MAMMALS, DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING IS THOUGHT TO OCCUR MAINLY VIA EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS, WHICH INCLUDE DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND EXPRESSION OF NON-CODING RNAS. THE EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING CAN BE INDUCED BY THE INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENT, LEADING TO INTERGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC EFFECTS FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT. TRANSGENERATIONAL EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE MAY BE CONSIDERED WHEN DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING IS TRANSMITTED ACROSS GENERATIONS THAT WERE NOT EXPOSED TO THE INITIAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH TRIGGERED THE CHANGE. SO FAR, INTER- AND TRANSGENERATIONAL PROGRAMMING HAS BEEN MAINLY DESCRIBED FOR CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC DISEASE RISK. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS AVAILABLE EVIDENCE THAT EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE ALSO OCCURS IN RESPIRATORY DISEASES, USING ASTHMA AND CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD) AS EXAMPLES. WHILE MULTIPLE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AS WELL AS ANIMAL STUDIES DEMONSTRATE EFFECTS OF 'TOXIC' INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE ON VARIOUS ASTHMA-RELATED PHENOTYPES IN THE OFFSPRING, ONLY FEW STUDIES LINK EPIGENETIC MARKS TO THE OBSERVED PHENOTYPES. AS EPIGENETIC MARKS MAY DISTINGUISH INDIVIDUALS MOST AT RISK OF LATER DISEASE AT EARLY AGE, IT WILL ENABLE EARLY INTERVENTION STRATEGIES TO REDUCE SUCH RISKS. TO ACHIEVE THIS GOAL FURTHER, WELL DESIGNED EXPERIMENTAL AND HUMAN STUDIES ARE NEEDED.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
17 4125  22 MECHANISMS OF DISEASE: IN UTERO PROGRAMMING IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF HYPERTENSION. NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CUES DURING DEVELOPMENT CAN PERMANENTLY ALTER THE STRUCTURE, HOMEOSTATIC SYSTEMS, AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY. THIS PHENOMENON HAS BEEN REFERRED TO AS 'PROGRAMMING'. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT PROGRAMMED EFFECTS OPERATE WITHIN THE NORMAL RANGE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INFLUENCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE. WE REVIEW THE EVIDENCE THAT THESE EFFECTS INCLUDE REDUCED NEPHRON NUMBER AND COMPENSATORY ADAPTATIONS, WHICH MIGHT LEAD TO HYPERTENSION, AND PERHAPS ACCELERATE THE DECLINE IN RENAL FUNCTION THAT ACCOMPANIES AGING. THESE PROCESSES MIGHT BE EXACERBATED BY PROGRAMMED CHANGES IN VASCULAR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, AND ALTERATIONS IN ENDOCRINE AND METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS. PROGRAMMED EFFECTS MIGHT BE INITIATED AS EARLY AS THE PERICONCEPTUAL PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT, AND COULD INVOLVE EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION OR ALTERED STEM CELL ALLOCATION. BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES COULD LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL DIAGNOSTIC AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES, AND TO EARLY DETECTION OF AT-RISK INDIVIDUALS. BY MONITORING BLOOD PRESSURE, WEIGHT, AND RENAL FUNCTION IN CHILDREN, IT MIGHT BE POSSIBLE TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL DISEASE IN LATER LIFE.	2006	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
18 5647  44 SEX DIFFERENCES IN FETAL KIDNEY REPROGRAMMING: THE CASE IN THE RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM. DURING THE EARLY STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIVING MULTIORGAN SYSTEMS, GENOME MODIFICATIONS OTHER THAN SEQUENCE VARIATION OCCUR THAT GUIDE CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND ORGANOGENESIS. THESE MODIFICATIONS ARE KNOWN TO OPERATE AS A FETAL PROGRAMMING CODE DURING THIS PERIOD, AND RECENT RESEARCH INDICATES THAT THERE ARE SOME TISSUE-SPECIFIC CODES IN ORGANOGENESIS WHOSE EFFECTS MAY PERSIST AFTER BIRTH UNTIL ADULTHOOD. CONSEQUENTLY, THE EVENTS THAT DISRUPT THE PRE-ESTABLISHED EPIGENETIC PATTERN COULD INDUCE SHIFTS IN ORGAN PHYSIOLOGY, WITH IMPLICATIONS ON HEALTH FROM BIRTH OR LATER IN ADULT LIFE. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IS ONE OF THE MAIN CAUSES OF MORTALITY WORLDWIDE; ITS ETIOLOGY IS MULTIFACTORIAL, BUT DIABETES, OBESITY, AND HYPERTENSION ARE THE MAIN CAUSES OF CKD IN ADULTS, ALTHOUGH THERE ARE OTHER RISK FACTORS THAT ARE MAINLY ASSOCIATED WITH AN INDIVIDUAL'S LIFESTYLE. RECENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT FETAL REPROGRAMMING IN THE DEVELOPING KIDNEY COULD BE IMPLICATED IN THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO KIDNEY DISEASE IN BOTH CHILDHOOD AND ADULTHOOD. SOME EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS, SUCH AS GENOME METHYLATION STATUS, DYSREGULATION OF MIRNA, AND HISTONE CODING ALTERATIONS IN GENES RELATED TO THE REGULATION OF THE RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN AXIS, A COMMON DENOMINATOR IN CKD, MAY HAVE ORIGINATED DURING FETAL DEVELOPMENT. THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON EPIGENETIC CHANGES DURING NEPHROGENESIS AND THEIR REPERCUSSIONS ON KIDNEY HEALTH AND DISEASE. IN ADDITION, THE FOCUS IS ON THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS DURING PREGNANCY, SUCH AS MATERNAL METABOLIC DISEASES AND DIETARY AND METABOLIC CONDITIONS, AS WELL AS SOME SEX DIFFERENCES IN FETAL KIDNEY REPROGRAMMING DURING WHICH DYSREGULATION OF THE RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM IS INVOLVED.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
19 4626  35 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS: EPIGENETICS AS AN UNDERLYING MECHANISM. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS, ESPECIALLY AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS (ASD) AND ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD), CALLS FOR MORE RESEARCH INTO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ETIOLOGIC AND RISK FACTORS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) HYPOTHESIZES THAT THE ENVIRONMENT DURING FETAL AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT AFFECTS THE RISK FOR MANY CHRONIC DISEASES IN LATER STAGES OF LIFE, INCLUDING NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. EPIGENETICS, A TERM DESCRIBING MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE CHANGES IN THE CHROMOSOME STATE WITHOUT AFFECTING DNA SEQUENCES, IS SUGGESTED TO BE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM, ACCORDING TO THE DOHAD HYPOTHESIS. MOREOVER, MANY NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS ARE ALSO RELATED TO EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES. EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT EXPOSURE TO PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS IS ASSOCIATED WITH NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. IN ADDITION, THERE IS ALSO EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS CAN RESULT IN EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, NOTABLY DNA METHYLATION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE FIRST FOCUS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS, IN PARTICULAR MATERNAL SMOKING, PLASTIC-DERIVED CHEMICALS (BISPHENOL A AND PHTHALATES), PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS, AND HEAVY METALS. WE THEN REVIEW STUDIES SHOWING THE EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF THOSE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN HUMANS THAT MAY AFFECT NORMAL NEURODEVELOPMENT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
20 6094  33 THE EFFECTS OF MATERNAL AND POSTNATAL DIETARY METHYL NUTRIENTS ON EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT LEAD TO NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. THE RISK FOR NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD CAN BE PROGRAMMED BY EARLY NUTRITION. THIS PROGRAMMING IS MEDIATED BY CHANGES IN EXPRESSION OF KEY GENES IN VARIOUS METABOLIC PATHWAYS DURING DEVELOPMENT, WHICH PERSIST INTO ADULTHOOD. THESE DEVELOPMENTAL MODIFICATIONS OF GENES ARE DUE TO EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN DNA METHYLATION PATTERNS. RECENT STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT DNA METHYLATION CAN BE AFFECTED BY MATERNAL OR EARLY POSTNATAL DIETS. BECAUSE METHYL GROUPS FOR METHYLATION REACTIONS COME FROM METHIONINE CYCLE NUTRIENTS (I.E., METHIONINE, CHOLINE, BETAINE, FOLATE), DEFICIENCY OR SUPPLEMENTATION OF THESE METHYL NUTRIENTS CAN DIRECTLY CHANGE EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF GENES PERMANENTLY. ALTHOUGH MANY STUDIES HAVE DESCRIBED THE EARLY PROGRAMMING OF ADULT DISEASES BY MATERNAL AND INFANT NUTRITION, THIS REVIEW DISCUSSES STUDIES THAT HAVE ASSOCIATED EARLY DIETARY METHYL NUTRIENT MANIPULATION WITH DIRECT EFFECTS ON EPIGENETIC PATTERNS THAT COULD LEAD TO CHRONIC DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. THE MATERNAL SUPPLY OF METHYL NUTRIENTS DURING GESTATION AND LACTATION CAN ALTER EPIGENETICS, BUT PROGRAMMING EFFECTS VARY DEPENDING ON THE TIMING OF DIETARY INTERVENTION, THE TYPE OF METHYL NUTRIENT MANIPULATED, AND THE TISSUE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PHENOTYPE. MOREOVER, THE POSTNATAL MANIPULATION OF METHYL NUTRIENTS CAN PROGRAM EPIGENETICS, BUT MORE RESEARCH IS NEEDED ON WHETHER THIS APPROACH CAN RESCUE MATERNALLY PROGRAMMED OFFSPRING.	2020