1 3397 145 HOW ADVANCED ARE WE ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF ORAL EXPOSURE TO FOOD CONTAMINANTS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CHRONIC NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES? THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL DURING FETAL LIFE AND CHILDHOOD IS CHARACTERIZED BY RAPID GROWTH AS WELL AS GRADUAL MATURATION OF ORGANS AND SYSTEMS. BEYOND THE NUTRITIONAL INTAKE IN ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS, FOOD CONTAMINANTS CAN PERMANENTLY INFLUENCE THE WAY ORGANS MATURE AND FUNCTION. THESE PROCESSES ARE CALLED "PROGRAMMING" AND PLAY AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN THE OCCURRENCE OF NON-COMMUNICABLE CHRONIC DISEASES THROUGHOUT THE LIFESPAN. POPULATIONS AS PREGNANT WOMEN, FETUSES AND YOUNG CHILDREN ARE VULNERABLE AND PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE TO FOOD CONTAMINANTS WHICH CAN INDUCE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS TRANSMISSIBLE TO FUTURE GENERATIONS. AMONG THESE CONTAMINANTS, PESTICIDES ARE FOUND IN MOST FOOD MATRICES EXPOSING HUMANS TO COCKTAILS OF MOLECULES THROUGH VARIABLE CONCENTRATIONS AND DURATION OF EXPOSURE. THE MAILLARD REACTION PRODUCTS (MRPS) REPRESENT OTHER FOOD CONTAMINANTS RESULTING FROM HEAT TREATMENT OF FOOD. MODERN DIET, RICH IN FATS AND SUGARS, IS ALSO RICH IN NEOFORMED PATHOGENIC COMPOUNDS, ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS (AGES), THE LEVELS OF WHICH DEPEND ON THE HEAT TREATMENT OF FOODS AND EATING HABITS AND WHOSE EFFECTS ON HEALTH ARE CONTROVERSIAL. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HAVE CHOSEN TO PRESENT THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE ON THE IMPACTS OF SELECTED PESTICIDES AND MRPS, ON THE RISK OF DEVELOPING DURING LIFE NON-COMMUNICABLE CHRONIC DISEASES SUCH AS IBD, METABOLIC DISORDERS OR ALLERGIES. A LARGE REVIEW OF LITERATURE WAS PERFORMED VIA PUBMED, AND THE MOST APPROPRIATE STUDIES WERE SUMMARISED.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
2 2226  44 EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS INDUCED BY NUTRIENTS IN EARLY LIFE PHASES: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN METABOLIC ALTERATION IN ADULTHOOD. METABOLIC CHRONIC DISEASES, ALSO NAMED NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS), ARE CONSIDERED MULTIFACTORIAL PATHOLOGIES, WHICH ARE DRAMATICALLY INCREASED DURING THE LAST DECADES. NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES, OBESITY, DIABETES MELLITUS, CANCERS, AND CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASES MARKEDLY INCREASE MORBIDITY, MORTALITY, AND SOCIOECONOMIC COSTS. MOREOVER, NCDS INDUCE SEVERAL AND COMPLEX CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS THAT LEAD TO A GRADUAL DETERIORATION OF HEALTH STATUS AND QUALITY OF LIFE OF AFFECTED INDIVIDUALS. MULTIPLE FACTORS ARE INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF THESE DISEASES SUCH AS SEDENTARY BEHAVIOR, SMOKING, POLLUTION, AND UNHEALTHY DIET. INDEED, NUTRITION HAS A PIVOTAL ROLE IN MAINTAINING HEALTH, AND DIETARY IMBALANCES REPRESENT MAJOR DETERMINANTS FAVORING CHRONIC DISEASES THROUGH METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS ALTERATIONS. IN PARTICULAR, IT APPEARS THAT SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS AND ADEQUATE NUTRITION ARE IMPORTANT IN ALL PERIODS OF LIFE, BUT THEY ARE ESSENTIAL DURING SPECIFIC TIMES IN EARLY LIFE SUCH AS PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL PHASES. INDEED, EPIDEMIOLOGIC AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES REPORT THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF AN INCORRECT NUTRITION ON HEALTH STATUS SEVERAL DECADES LATER IN LIFE. DURING THE LAST DECADE, A GROWING INTEREST ON THE POSSIBLE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AS LINK BETWEEN NUTRITIONAL IMBALANCES AND NCDS DEVELOPMENT HAS BEEN OBSERVED. FINALLY, BECAUSE OF THE PIVOTAL ROLE OF THE HORMONES IN FAT, CARBOHYDRATE, AND PROTEIN METABOLISM REGULATION THROUGHOUT LIFE, IT IS EXPECTED THAT ANY HORMONAL MODIFICATION OF THESE PROCESSES CAN IMBALANCE METABOLISM AND FAT STORAGE. THEREFORE, A PARTICULAR INTEREST TO SEVERAL CHEMICALS ABLE TO ACT AS ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS HAS BEEN RECENTLY DEVELOPED. IN THIS REVIEW, WE WILL PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW AND DISCUSS THE EPIGENETIC ROLE OF SOME SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS AND CHEMICALS IN THE MODULATION OF PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
3 4805  39 OBESITY AND METABOLIC COMORBIDITIES: ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASES? OBESITY AND METABOLIC COMORBIDITIES REPRESENT INCREASING HEALTH PROBLEMS. ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING COMPOUNDS (EDCS) ARE EXOGENOUS AGENTS THAT CHANGE ENDOCRINE FUNCTION AND CAUSE ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS. MOST EDCS ARE SYNTHETIC CHEMICALS; SOME ARE NATURAL FOOD COMPONENTS AS PHYTOESTROGENS. PEOPLE ARE EXPOSED TO COMPLEX MIXTURES OF CHEMICALS THROUGHOUT THEIR LIVES. EDCS IMPACT HORMONE-DEPENDENT METABOLIC SYSTEMS AND BRAIN FUNCTION. LABORATORY AND HUMAN STUDIES PROVIDE COMPELLING EVIDENCE THAT HUMAN CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION CAN PLAY A ROLE IN OBESITY EPIDEMIC. CHEMICAL EXPOSURES MAY INCREASE THE RISK OF OBESITY BY ALTERING THE DIFFERENTIATION OF ADIPOCYTES. EDCS CAN ALTER METHYLATION PATTERNS AND NORMAL EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING IN CELLS. OXIDATIVE STRESS MAY BE INDUCED BY MANY OF THESE CHEMICALS, AND ACCUMULATING EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT IT PLAYS IMPORTANT ROLES IN THE ETIOLOGY OF CHRONIC DISEASES. THE INDIVIDUAL SENSITIVITY TO CHEMICALS IS VARIABLE, DEPENDING ON ENVIRONMENT AND ABILITY TO METABOLIZE HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS. A NUMBER OF GENES, ESPECIALLY THOSE REPRESENTING ANTIOXIDANT AND DETOXIFICATION PATHWAYS, HAVE POTENTIAL APPLICATION AS BIOMARKERS OF RISK ASSESSMENT. THE POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF COMBINED EXPOSURES MAKE THE RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS MORE COMPLEX COMPARED TO THE ASSESSMENT OF SINGLE CHEMICALS. TECHNIQUES AND METHODS NEED TO BE FURTHER DEVELOPED TO FILL DATA GAPS AND INCREASE THE KNOWLEDGE ON HARMFUL EXPOSURE COMBINATIONS.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
4 5089  40 PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS TO MICRONUTRIENT DYSREGULATION IN THE PROGRAMMING OF CHRONIC DISEASE. POOR NUTRITION DURING PREGNANCY IS KNOWN TO IMPAIR FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND INCREASE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE IN OFFSPRING. BOTH MACRONUTRIENTS AND MICRONUTRIENTS ARE REQUIRED FOR A HEALTHY PREGNANCY ALTHOUGH SIGNIFICANTLY LESS IS UNDERSTOOD ABOUT THE ROLE OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN THE PROGRAMMING OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THIS IS DESPITE THE FACT THAT MODERN CALORIE RICH DIETS ARE OFTEN ALSO DEFICIENT IN KEY MICRONUTRIENTS. THE IMPORTANCE OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN GESTATIONAL DISORDERS IS CLEARLY UNDERSTOOD BUT HOW THEY IMPACT LONG TERM DISEASE IN HUMANS REQUIRES FURTHER INVESTIGATION. IN CONTRAST, ANIMAL STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED HOW DIETS HIGH OR LOW IN SPECIFIC MICRONUTRIENTS INFLUENCE OFFSPRING PHYSIOLOGY. MANY OF THESE STUDIES HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PLACENTA IN DETERMINING DISEASE RISK. THIS REVIEW WILL EXPLORE THE EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL VITAMINS, MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS ON OFFSPRING DISEASE OUTCOMES AND DISCUSS SEVERAL KEY PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY MULTIPLE MICRONUTRIENTS. THESE PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS INCLUDE MICRONUTRIENT INDUCED DYSREGULATION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS, ALTERED METHYL DONOR AVAILABILITY AND ITS IMPACT ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AS WELL AS ENDOCRINE DYSFUNCTION. CRITICAL GAPS IN OUR CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT MICRONUTRIENTS AT DIFFERENT GESTATIONAL AGES WILL ALSO BE HIGHLIGHTED. FINALLY, THIS REVIEW WILL DISCUSS THE NEED FOR FURTHER STUDIES TO CHARACTERISE THE MICRONUTRIENT STATUS OF AUSTRALIAN WOMEN OF REPRODUCTIVE AGE AND CORRELATE MICRONUTRIENT STATUS TO PLACENTAL ADAPTATIONS, PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS AND OFFSPRING DISEASE.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
5 1932  30 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES: AN UNDERRECOGNIZED CONTRIBUTION TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES. PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS TO DETERMINE THE DEGREE TO WHICH EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCDS) HAVE BEEN VERY CONSERVATIVE AND HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY UNDERESTIMATED THE ACTUAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR AT LEAST TWO REASONS. FIRSTLY, MOST PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE EXCLUDED THE CONTRIBUTION OF LIFESTYLE BEHAVIORAL RISK FACTORS, BUT THESE USUALLY INVOLVE SIGNIFICANT EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS THAT INCREASE RISK OF DISEASE. SECONDLY, EARLY LIFE EXPOSURE TO CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IS NOW CLEARLY ASSOCIATED WITH AN ELEVATED RISK OF SEVERAL DISEASES LATER IN LIFE, BUT THESE CONNECTIONS ARE OFTEN DIFFICULT TO DISCERN. THIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE FOR ASTHMA AND NEURODEVELOPMENTAL CONDITIONS, BUT THERE IS ALSO A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY AND CHRONIC DISEASES. MOST CANCERS ARE CAUSED BY ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES IN GENETICALLY SUSCEPTIBLE INDIVIDUALS. IN ADDITION, NEW INFORMATION SHOWS SIGNIFICANT ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES AND DIABETES AND EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS PRESENT IN AIR, FOOD, AND WATER. THESE RELATIONSHIPS LIKELY REFLECT THE COMBINATION OF EPIGENETIC EFFECTS AND GENE INDUCTION. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE TO NCDS THAN PREVIOUS REPORTS HAVE SUGGESTED. PREVENTION NEEDS TO SHIFT FOCUS FROM INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETAL RESPONSIBILITY AND AN UNDERSTANDING THAT EFFECTIVE PREVENTION OF NCDS ULTIMATELY RELIES ON IMPROVED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE EXPOSURE TO MODIFIABLE RISKS.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
6 3582  29 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
7 6088  43 THE EFFECTS OF ASSISTED REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES ON METABOLIC HEALTH AND DISEASEDAGGER. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF METABOLIC DISEASES PLACES A SUBSTANTIAL BURDEN ON HUMAN HEALTH THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. IT IS BELIEVED THAT PREDISPOSITION TO METABOLIC DISEASE STARTS EARLY IN LIFE, A PERIOD OF GREAT SUSCEPTIBILITY TO EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INSULTS. ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART), I.E., TREATMENTS FOR INFERTILITY, MAY AFFECT EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT, RESULTING IN MULTIPLE ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES IN POSTNATAL LIFE. THE MOST FREQUENTLY OBSERVED ALTERATION IN ART PREGNANCIES IS IMPAIRED PLACENTAL NUTRIENT TRANSFER. MOREOVER, CONSEQUENT INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION AND LOW BIRTH WEIGHT FOLLOWED BY CATCH-UP GROWTH CAN ALL PREDICT FUTURE OBESITY, INSULIN RESISTANCE, AND CHRONIC METABOLIC DISEASES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HAVE FOCUSED ON EVIDENCE OF ADVERSE METABOLIC ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ART, WHICH CAN CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC ADULT-ONSET DISEASES, SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME, TYPE 2 DIABETES, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. DUE TO HIGH PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY, ART PREGNANCIES CAN PRODUCE BOTH OFFSPRING WITH ADVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES, AS WELL AS HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS. WE FURTHER DISCUSS THE SEX-SPECIFIC AND AGE-DEPENDENT METABOLIC ALTERATIONS REFLECTED IN ART OFFSPRING, AND HOW THE DEGREE OF INTERFERENCE OF A GIVEN ART PROCEDURE (FROM MILD TO MORE SEVERE MANIPULATION OF THE EGG) AFFECTS THE OCCURRENCE AND DEGREE OF OFFSPRING ALTERATIONS. OVER THE LAST FEW YEARS, STUDIES HAVE REPORTED SIGNS OF CARDIOMETABOLIC ALTERATIONS IN ART OFFSPRING THAT ARE DETECTABLE AT A YOUNG AGE BUT THAT DO NOT APPEAR TO CONSTITUTE A HIGH RISK OF DISEASE AND MORBIDITY PER SE. THESE ABNORMAL PHENOTYPES COULD BE EARLY INDICATORS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC DISEASES, INCLUDING METABOLIC SYNDROME, IN ADULTHOOD. THE EARLY DETECTION OF METABOLIC ALTERATIONS COULD CONTRIBUTE TO PREVENTING THE ONSET OF DISEASE IN ADULTHOOD. SUCH EARLY INTERVENTIONS MAY COUNTERACT THE RISK FACTORS AND IMPROVE THE LONG-TERM HEALTH OF THE INDIVIDUAL.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
8 4280  32 MICRONUTRIENTS IN EARLY LIFE AND OFFSPRING METABOLIC HEALTH PROGRAMMING: A PROMISING TARGET FOR PREVENTING NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES ARE THE LEADING CAUSE OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WORLDWIDE. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING EFFECTIVE PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES IS THE BEST WAY TO ENSURE THE OVERALL METABOLIC HEALTH STATUS OF THE POPULATION AND TO COUNTER THE GLOBAL BURDEN OF NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. PREDISPOSITION TO OBESITY AND OTHER NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IS DUE TO A COMBINATION OF GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THROUGHOUT LIFE, BUT THE EARLY ENVIRONMENT, PARTICULARLY THE ENVIRONMENT DURING THE FETAL PERIOD AND THE EARLY YEARS OF LIFE, IS CRUCIAL IN DETERMINING METABOLIC HEALTH, HENCE THE CONCEPT OF 'FETAL PROGRAMMING'. THE ORIGINS OF THIS CAUSAL LINK BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND DISEASE LIE IN EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. AMONG THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, DIET PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN THIS PROCESS. SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE DOCUMENTED THE KEY ROLE OF MACRONUTRIENTS IN THE PROGRAMMING OF METABOLIC DISEASES EARLY IN LIFE. RECENTLY, THE EFFECT OF MATERNAL MICRONUTRIENT INTAKE ON OFFSPRING METABOLIC HEALTH IN LATER LIFE EMERGED. THE PURPOSE OF THIS NARRATIVE REVIEW IS TO BRING TO LIGHT AVAILABLE EVIDENCE IN THE LITERATURE ON THE EFFECT OF MATERNAL MICRONUTRIENT STATUS ON OFFSPRING METABOLIC HEALTH AND UNDERLYING EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT DRIVE THIS LINK TO HIGHLIGHT ITS POTENTIAL ROLE IN THE PREVENTION OF NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
9 1155  37 CONSIDERING MATERNAL DIETARY MODULATORS FOR EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND PROGRAMMING OF THE FETAL EPIGENOME. FETAL LIFE IS CHARACTERIZED BY A TREMENDOUS PLASTICITY AND ABILITY TO RESPOND TO VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL AND LIFESTYLE FACTORS, INCLUDING MATERNAL NUTRITION. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROLE OF DIETARY FACTORS THAT CAN MODULATE AND RESHAPE THE CELLULAR EPIGENOME DURING DEVELOPMENT, INCLUDING METHYL GROUP DONORS (E.G., FOLATE, CHOLINE) AND BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS (E.G., POLYPHENOLS) IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE; HOWEVER, THERE IS INSUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGE OF A PARTICULAR EFFECT OF EACH TYPE OF MODULATOR AND/OR THEIR COMBINATION ON FETAL LIFE. TO ENHANCE THE QUALITY AND SAFETY OF FOOD PRODUCTS FOR PROPER FETAL HEALTH AND DISEASE PREVENTION IN LATER LIFE, A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF DIETARY EPIGENETIC MODULATORS DURING THE CRITICAL PRENATAL PERIOD IS NECESSARY. THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE INFLUENCE OF MATERNAL DIETARY COMPONENTS ON DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, AND MICRORNAS, AND SUMMARIZES CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE EFFECT AND IMPORTANCE OF DIETARY COMPONENTS ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT CONTROL THE PROPER EXPRESSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION. EVIDENCE REVEALS THAT SOME COMPONENTS IN THE MATERNAL DIET CAN DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY AFFECT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. UNDERSTANDING THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF HOW EARLY-LIFE NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS THE EPIGENOME DURING DEVELOPMENT IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE FOR THE SUCCESSFUL PREVENTION OF ADULT CHRONIC DISEASES THROUGH OPTIMAL MATERNAL NUTRITION.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
10 6781  47 [BREATHING: AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH - PART III]. THE THIRD PART OF THE DGP STATEMENT INTRODUCES THE CURRENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE ON LESS STUDIED HEALTH OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION: THE NEGATIVE IMPACT ON METABOLISM LEADING TO IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND DIABETES AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND DELAYED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN CHILDREN. FURTHERMORE, PRENATAL EXPOSURE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON MOTHER AND CHILD ARE ADDRESSED. FINALLY, THE CURRENTLY DISCUSSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ARE DESCRIBED.DIFFERING, BUT OFTEN COMPLEMENTARY BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CREATE THE BASIS FOR THE DIVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES CAUSED BY AIR POLLUTION. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND A SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IN THE LUNGS AND ON A SYSTEMIC LEVEL ("LOW-GRADE SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION") ARE CONSIDERED TO BE KEY MECHANISMS. THEY PROMOTE SECONDARY ALTERATIONS IN THE BODY, SUCH AS VASCULAR OR METABOLIC PROCESSES, AND MAY ALSO RESULT IN THE CURRENTLY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA OR NEUROINFLAMMATION. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLUBLE PARTICULATE MATTER AND THE ROLE OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES TRANSLOCATED ACROSS BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES INTO BLOOD VESSEL AND TRANSPORTED VIA THE CIRCULATION TO SECONDARY TARGET ORGANS, SUCH AS LIVER, BRAIN OR THE FETUS, ARE INTENSIVELY DISCUSSED.DIABETES IS ONE OF THE LEADING CHRONIC DISEASES WORLDWIDE, WITH A PREVALENCE OF ALMOST 14 % IN GERMANY. ALTHOUGH LIFESTYLE FACTORS ARE THE MAIN CAUSES, CURRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION MAY ADDITIONALLY INCREASE THE RISK FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR A CAUSAL ROLE OF AIR POLLUTION IS PROVIDED BY STUDIES ADDRESSING THE REGULATION OF THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS IN METABOLICALLY HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS, INSULIN SENSITIVITY, OR PREGNANCY-RELATED DIABETES. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES PROVIDE FURTHER SUPPORT FOR PLAUSIBLE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, PROSPECTIVE STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO GAIN MORE EVIDENCE, TAKING MULTIPLE LIFESTYLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SUCH AS GREEN SPACE AND NOISE, AND AN IMPROVED INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT INTO ACCOUNT.THE AGING POPULATION HAS AN INCREASED RISK OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. FIRST STUDIES POINT TOWARDS A CONTRIBUTION OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, SPECIFICALLY BY PARTICULATE MATTER. SEVERAL STUDIES REPORT ITS ASSOCIATION WITH DECREASED NEUROCOGNITIVE CAPACITY OR AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DEMENTIA OR ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADULTS. HOWEVER, THE STUDIES ARE INHOMOGENEOUS REGARDING DESIGN, EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT RESULTS. WITH RESPECT TO THE INFLUENCE ON NEUROCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN, FIRST STUDIES SUGGEST AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION, E. G. AT SCHOOL, AND DELAYED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.EVEN THOUGH THE EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS DURING PREGNANCY IS STILL HETEROGENEOUS, THE STUDIES GENERALLY POINT TOWARDS AN ADVERSE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL AND FETAL ORGANISMS. THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE EXISTS FOR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, WITH SMALL EFFECT SIZES OF ONLY SOME GRAMS, AND FOR A HIGHER INCIDENCE OF REDUCED BIRTH WEIGHT (< 2500 G). AN INCREASED RISK FOR GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION AND PREECLAMPSIA UNDERSCORES THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL ORGANISM. HOWEVER, THE CURRENT BODY OF EVIDENCE DOES NOT YET ALLOW A FINAL CONCLUSION ON THE INFLUENCE OF INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION REGARDING EARLY CHILDHOOD LUNG FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGIES, PARTICULARLY IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS HARD TO DISTINGUISH IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POSTNATAL EXPOSURE.	2019	

11 2157  39 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ELICITED BY NUTRITION IN EARLY LIFE. A GROWING NUMBER OF STUDIES FOCUSING ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE HYPOTHESIS HAVE IDENTIFIED LINKS AMONG EARLY NUTRITION, EPIGENETIC PROCESSES AND DISEASES ALSO IN LATER LIFE. DIFFERENT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ARE ELICITED BY DIETARY FACTORS IN EARLY CRITICAL DEVELOPMENTAL AGES THAT ARE ABLE TO AFFECT THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SEVERAL DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. THE STUDIES HERE REVIEWED SUGGEST THAT MATERNAL AND NEONATAL DIET MAY HAVE LONG-LASTING EFFECTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NON-COMMUNICABLE CHRONIC ADULTHOOD DISEASES, IN PARTICULAR THE COMPONENTS OF THE SO-CALLED METABOLIC SYNDROME, SUCH AS INSULIN RESISTANCE, TYPE 2 DIABETES, OBESITY, DYSLIPIDAEMIA, HYPERTENSION, AND CVD. BOTH MATERNAL UNDER- AND OVER-NUTRITION MAY REGULATE THE EXPRESSION OF GENES INVOLVED IN LIPID AND CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM. EARLY POSTNATAL NUTRITION MAY ALSO REPRESENT A VITAL DETERMINANT OF ADULT HEALTH BY MAKING AN IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTION OF GUT MICROBIOTA. AN INADEQUATE GUT MICROBIOTA COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION IN EARLY LIFE SEEMS TO ACCOUNT FOR THE DEVIANT PROGRAMMING OF LATER IMMUNITY AND OVERALL HEALTH STATUS. IN THIS REGARD PROBIOTICS, WHICH HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO RESTORE THE INTESTINAL MICROBIOTA BALANCE, MAY BE EFFECTIVE IN PREVENTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC IMMUNE-MEDIATED DISEASES. MORE RECENTLY, THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ELICITED BY PROBIOTICS THROUGH THE PRODUCTION OF SCFA ARE HYPOTHESISED TO BE THE KEY TO UNDERSTAND HOW THEY MEDIATE THEIR NUMEROUS HEALTH-PROMOTING EFFECTS FROM THE GUT TO THE PERIPHERAL TISSUES.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
12 1371  33 DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE: NEW INSIGHTS. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT SMALL CHANGES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ENVIRONMENT CAN INDUCE PHENOTYPIC CHANGES AFFECTING AN INDIVIDUAL'S RESPONSES TO THEIR LATER ENVIRONMENT. THESE MAY ALTER THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME OR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. RECENT RESEARCH SHOWS THAT ANIMALS EXPOSED TO SUCH A MISMATCH BETWEEN PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT DEVELOP OBESITY, REDUCED ACTIVITY, LEPTIN AND INSULIN RESISTANCE, ELEVATED BLOOD PRESSURE AND VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION. EPIGENETIC PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED IN SUCH EFFECTS, TARGETED TO PROMOTER REGIONS OF SPECIFIC GENES IN SPECIFIC TISSUES. SUCH FINE CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION SUGGESTS THAT THE MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN RETAINED THROUGH EVOLUTION THROUGH THEIR ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE, RATHER THAN REPRESENTING EXTREME EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION AKIN TO TERATOGENESIS. THERE MAY BE ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CUE INDUCING A PHENOTYPIC CHANGE IN GENERATIONS BEYOND THE IMMEDIATE PREGNANCY, AND A RANGE OF DATA THAT SUPPORT THIS CONCEPT. IN ANIMALS, EPIGENETIC EFFECTS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION CAN BE PASSED TO SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS, INCLUDING ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS, MAY INDUCE GREATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE, EVEN AT LOW EXPOSURE LEVELS, IF THEY AFFECT SUCH NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL EPIGENETIC PROCESSES. APPROPRIATE INTERVENTIONS MAY HAVE LONG-TERM MULTIGENERATIONAL EFFECTS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
13 1801  35 EFFECT OF MATERNAL DIET ON THE EPIGENOME: IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN METABOLIC DISEASE. THE RAPID INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES OVER THE PAST TWO DECADES CANNOT BE EXPLAINED SOLELY BY GENETIC AND ADULT LIFESTYLE FACTORS. THERE IS NOW CONSIDERABLE EVIDENCE THAT THE FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT ALSO STRONGLY INFLUENCES THE RISK OF DEVELOPING SUCH DISEASES IN LATER LIFE. HUMAN STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT LOW BIRTH WEIGHT IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF CVD, TYPE II DIABETES, OBESITY AND HYPERTENSION, ALTHOUGH RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT OVER-NUTRITION IN EARLY LIFE CAN ALSO INCREASE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO FUTURE METABOLIC DISEASE. THESE FINDINGS HAVE BEEN REPLICATED IN A VARIETY OF ANIMAL MODELS, WHICH HAVE SHOWN THAT BOTH MATERNAL UNDER- AND OVER-NUTRITION CAN INDUCE PERSISTENT CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION AND METABOLISM WITHIN THE OFFSPRING. THE MECHANISM BY WHICH THE MATERNAL NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT INDUCES SUCH CHANGES IS BEGINNING TO BE UNDERSTOOD AND INVOLVES THE ALTERED EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF SPECIFIC GENES. THE DEMONSTRATION OF A ROLE FOR ALTERED EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF GENES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL INDUCTION OF CHRONIC DISEASES RAISES THE POSSIBILITY THAT NUTRITIONAL OR PHARMACEUTICAL INTERVENTIONS MAY BE USED TO MODIFY LONG-TERM CARDIO-METABOLIC DISEASE RISK AND COMBAT THIS RAPID RISE IN CHRONIC NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
14 6844  38 [METABOLIC PROGRAMMING: THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE]. IT IS KNOWN THAT THE POOR NUTRITION DURING A FETAL DEVELOPMENT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO AN INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. IN A MODERN LITERATURE, THIS PHENOMENON IS CALLED <<THE NUTRITIONAL PROGRAMMING OF AGE-RELATED PATHOLOGIES>>. IT IS ASSUMED THAT THE QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE DEFICIENCY OF CERTAIN NUTRITIONAL COMPONENTS DURING AN EARLY DEVELOPMENT MAY LEAD TO THE ADAPTATIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO IMPROVED SURVIVAL DURING THE PRENATAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL PERIODS OF AN ONTOGENESIS. HOWEVER, THE CONSEQUENCE OF SUCH ADAPTIVE CHANGES MAY ALSO BE THE DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS PATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AT THE LATER STAGES OF LIFE. RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT ONE OF THE MAJOR MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THESE ADAPTATIONS IS THE EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF A GENE ACTIVITY. IN THIS REVIEW, THE EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE IS PROVIDED THAT PROCESSES ARISING FROM A QUANTITATIVELY OR QUALITATIVELY RESTRICTED DIET DURING THE EARLY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE FURTHER LIFE AND CAN GREATLY INFLUENCE RISK OF VARIOUS AGE-RELATED DISEASES AND LIFE SPAN.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
15 4626  32 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS: EPIGENETICS AS AN UNDERLYING MECHANISM. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS, ESPECIALLY AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS (ASD) AND ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD), CALLS FOR MORE RESEARCH INTO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ETIOLOGIC AND RISK FACTORS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) HYPOTHESIZES THAT THE ENVIRONMENT DURING FETAL AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT AFFECTS THE RISK FOR MANY CHRONIC DISEASES IN LATER STAGES OF LIFE, INCLUDING NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. EPIGENETICS, A TERM DESCRIBING MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE CHANGES IN THE CHROMOSOME STATE WITHOUT AFFECTING DNA SEQUENCES, IS SUGGESTED TO BE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM, ACCORDING TO THE DOHAD HYPOTHESIS. MOREOVER, MANY NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS ARE ALSO RELATED TO EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES. EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT EXPOSURE TO PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS IS ASSOCIATED WITH NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. IN ADDITION, THERE IS ALSO EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS CAN RESULT IN EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, NOTABLY DNA METHYLATION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE FIRST FOCUS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS, IN PARTICULAR MATERNAL SMOKING, PLASTIC-DERIVED CHEMICALS (BISPHENOL A AND PHTHALATES), PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS, AND HEAVY METALS. WE THEN REVIEW STUDIES SHOWING THE EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF THOSE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN HUMANS THAT MAY AFFECT NORMAL NEURODEVELOPMENT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
16 1769  35 EARLY-LIFE NUTRITIONAL PROGRAMMING OF LONGEVITY. AVAILABLE DATA FROM BOTH EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT INADEQUATE DIET IN EARLY LIFE CAN PERMANENTLY CHANGE THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF SPECIFIC ORGANS OR HOMOEOSTATIC PATHWAYS, THEREBY 'PROGRAMMING' THE INDIVIDUAL'S HEALTH STATUS AND LONGEVITY. SUFFICIENT EVIDENCE HAS ACCUMULATED SHOWING SIGNIFICANT IMPACT OF EPIGENETIC REGULATION MECHANISMS IN NUTRITIONAL PROGRAMMING PHENOMENON. THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF EARLY-LIFE DIET IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGING-RELATED CHRONIC DISEASES IS WELL ESTABLISHED AND DESCRIBED IN MANY SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. HOWEVER, THE PROGRAMMING EFFECTS ON LIFESPAN HAVE NOT BEEN EXTENSIVELY REVIEWED SYSTEMATICALLY. THE AIM OF THE REVIEW IS TO PROVIDE A SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS AND THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS THAT INDICATE THAT LONGEVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY EARLY NUTRITION.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
17 2274  31 EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND FETAL PROGRAMMING. FETAL PROGRAMMING ENCOMPASSES THE ROLE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY IN RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND NUTRITIONAL SIGNALS DURING EARLY LIFE AND ITS POTENTIAL ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES (RISK OF CARDIOVASCULAR, METABOLIC AND BEHAVIOURAL DISEASES) IN LATER LIFE. THE FIRST STUDIES IN THIS FIELD HIGHLIGHTED AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN POOR FETAL GROWTH AND CHRONIC ADULT DISEASES. HOWEVER, ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNALS DURING EARLY LIFE MAY LEAD TO ADVERSE LONG-TERM EFFECTS INDEPENDENTLY OF OBVIOUS EFFECTS ON FETAL GROWTH. ADVERSE LONG-TERM EFFECTS REFLECT A MISMATCH BETWEEN EARLY (FETAL AND NEONATAL) ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND THE CONDITIONS THAT THE INDIVIDUAL WILL CONFRONT LATER IN LIFE. THE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THIS RISK REMAIN UNCLEAR. HOWEVER, EXPERIMENTAL DATA IN RODENTS AND RECENT OBSERVATIONS IN HUMANS SUGGEST THAT EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN REGULATORY GENES AND GROWTH-RELATED GENES PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN FETAL PROGRAMMING. IMPROVEMENTS IN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS AT PLAY IN FETAL PROGRAMMING WOULD MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS FOR DETECTING INFANTS AT HIGH RISK OF ADULT-ONSET DISEASES. SUCH IMPROVEMENTS SHOULD ALSO LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREVENTIVE AND THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
18 4125  35 MECHANISMS OF DISEASE: IN UTERO PROGRAMMING IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF HYPERTENSION. NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CUES DURING DEVELOPMENT CAN PERMANENTLY ALTER THE STRUCTURE, HOMEOSTATIC SYSTEMS, AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY. THIS PHENOMENON HAS BEEN REFERRED TO AS 'PROGRAMMING'. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT PROGRAMMED EFFECTS OPERATE WITHIN THE NORMAL RANGE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INFLUENCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE. WE REVIEW THE EVIDENCE THAT THESE EFFECTS INCLUDE REDUCED NEPHRON NUMBER AND COMPENSATORY ADAPTATIONS, WHICH MIGHT LEAD TO HYPERTENSION, AND PERHAPS ACCELERATE THE DECLINE IN RENAL FUNCTION THAT ACCOMPANIES AGING. THESE PROCESSES MIGHT BE EXACERBATED BY PROGRAMMED CHANGES IN VASCULAR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, AND ALTERATIONS IN ENDOCRINE AND METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS. PROGRAMMED EFFECTS MIGHT BE INITIATED AS EARLY AS THE PERICONCEPTUAL PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT, AND COULD INVOLVE EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION OR ALTERED STEM CELL ALLOCATION. BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES COULD LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL DIAGNOSTIC AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES, AND TO EARLY DETECTION OF AT-RISK INDIVIDUALS. BY MONITORING BLOOD PRESSURE, WEIGHT, AND RENAL FUNCTION IN CHILDREN, IT MIGHT BE POSSIBLE TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL DISEASE IN LATER LIFE.	2006	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
19 4803  27 OBESITY AND MALE INFERTILITY. THE WORLDWIDE PREVALENCE OF OBESITY IS INCREASING AMONG BOTH SEXES, WITH ASSOCIATED IMPACTS ON CHRONIC HEALTH AND MEDICAL COMORBIDITIES. SIMILARLY, THE EFFECTS OF OBESITY ON REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ARE INCREASINGLY BEING RECOGNIZED. ADIPOSITY IS ASSOCIATED WITH REDUCED FERTILITY IN MEN, WITH A COMPLEX AND MULTIFACTORIAL ETIOLOGY. THE REPORTED EFFECTS OF OBESITY ON SEMEN PARAMETERS AND IMPAIRED FERTILITY ARE CONTRASTING, WITH SOME STUDIES SHOWING A CLEAR REDUCTION IN REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED BODY MASS INDEX, WHILE OTHERS DO NOT SHOW SUCH IMPACTS. THESE CONTROVERSIES MAY BE DUE TO THE COMPLEX PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND INTERPLAY BETWEEN GONADOTROPINS AND END ORGANS, AS WELL AS GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES AND OXIDATIVE STRESS ON MALE FERTILITY AND FUNCTION. THESE DIFFERENT ASPECTS HAVE LED TO HETEROGENEOUS PARTICIPANTS IN STUDIES AND VARYING IMPLICATIONS FOR ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES AS WELL AS OFFSPRING HEALTH. TREATMENT MODALITIES TO MANAGE OBESITY INCLUDE LIFESTYLE, MEDICAL, AND SURGICAL OPTIONS, WITH EMERGING AND EFFECTIVE MEDICAL TREATMENTS SHOWING PROMISE IN REPRODUCTIVE OUTCOMES.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
20 6191  36 THE IMPACT OF MILK AND ITS COMPONENTS ON EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING OF IMMUNE FUNCTION IN EARLY LIFE AND BEYOND: IMPLICATIONS FOR ALLERGY AND ASTHMA. SPECIFIC AND ADEQUATE NUTRITION DURING PREGNANCY AND EARLY LIFE IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN AVOIDING NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES SUCH AS OBESITY, TYPE 2 DIABETES, CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, CANCERS, AND CHRONIC ALLERGIC DISEASES. ALTHOUGH EPIDEMIOLOGIC AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT NUTRITION IS IMPORTANT AT ALL STAGES OF LIFE, IT IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT IN PRENATAL AND THE FIRST FEW YEARS OF LIFE. DURING THE LAST DECADE, THERE HAS BEEN A GROWING INTEREST IN THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN THE INCREASING HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ALLERGIC DISEASE. EPIGENETICS INVOLVES SEVERAL MECHANISMS INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND MICRORNAS WHICH CAN MODIFY THE EXPRESSION OF GENES. IN THIS STUDY, WE FOCUS ON THE EFFECTS OF MATERNAL NUTRITION DURING PREGNANCY, THE EFFECTS OF THE BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS IN HUMAN AND BOVINE MILK, AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT EARLY LIFE (I.E., FARMING, MILK PROCESSING, AND BACTERIAL EXPOSURE), AND WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE PERSISTENT PROGRAMMING OF IMMUNE FUNCTIONS AND ALLERGIC DISEASES. THIS KNOWLEDGE WILL HELP TO IMPROVE APPROACHES TO NUTRITION IN EARLY LIFE AND HELP PREVENT ALLERGIES IN THE FUTURE.	2020