1 3267 101 HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA AND POSSIBLE CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CAUSES: A REVIEW. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS A MULTISTEP PROCESS. IN HCC, PROGRESSIVE AND MORPHOLOGICALLY DISTINCT PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS/ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC LIVER INJURY, INFLAMMATION, HEPATOCELLULAR DEGENERATION/REGENERATION, NECROSIS, AND SMALL-CELL DYSPLASIA CAN BE OBSERVED. THE INCIDENCE OF HCC EXHIBITS REGIONAL AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES. SEVERAL CYTOTOXIC AND DNA-DAMAGING CHEMICALS ARE SUGGESTED TO BE THE UNDERLYING CAUSES OF HCC-FOR EXAMPLE, ACRYLAMIDE, PERFLUOROOCTANOIC ACID (PFOA), POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBS), BENZO(A)PYRENE (BAP), PERFLUORINATED CHEMICALS (PFCS), VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER (VCM), AND DIETARY CONTAMINANTS (AFLATOXINS, OCHRATOXINS). ALSO SUGGESTED ARE SUBSTANCES OF ABUSE (ALCOHOL) AND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS, SUCH AS HEPATITIS B AND C AND HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1 (HIV-1). THESE CAN ACT THROUGH GENETIC AND/OR EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. THIS REVIEW WILL SHORTLY ADDRESS THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS OF HCC AND FOCUS ON CYTOTOXIC AND DNA-DAMAGING CHEMICALS AND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS, EXPOSURE TO WHICH ARE SUGGESTED TO LEAD TO HCC INITIATION, PROMOTION, AND/OR PROGRESSION.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
2 6798  29 [EPIDEMIOLOGY, RISK FACTORS AND MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS OF PRIMARY LIVER CANCER]. PRIMARY LIVER CANCER IS THE FIFTH MOST COMMON CANCER WORLDWIDE. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA ACCOUNTS FOR 85-90% OF PRIMARY LIVER CANCERS. DISTRIBUTION OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA SHOWS VARIATIONS AMONG GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS AND ETHNIC GROUPS. MALES HAVE HIGHER LIVER CANCER RATES THAN FEMALES. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA OCCURS WITHIN AN ESTABLISHED BACKGROUND OF CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE AND CIRRHOSIS (70-90%). MAJOR CAUSES (80%) OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA ARE HEPATITIS B, C VIRUS INFECTION, AND AFLATOXIN EXPOSITION. ITS DEVELOPMENT IS A MULTISTEP PROCESS. WE HAVE A GROWING UNDERSTANDING ON THE MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS. GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES ACTIVATE ONCOGENES, INHIBIT TUMORSUPPRESSOR GENES, WHICH RESULT IN AUTONOMOUS CELL PROLIFERATION. THE CHROMOSOMAL INSTABILITY CAUSED BY TELOMERE DYSFUNCTION, THE GROWTH-RETRAINED ENVIRONMENT AND THE ALTERATIONS OF THE MICRO- AND MACROENVIRONMENT HELP THE EXPANSION OF THE MALIGNANT CELLS. UNDERSTANDING THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS COULD IMPROVE THE SCREENING OF PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE, OR CIRRHOSIS, AND THE PREVENTION AS WELL AS TREATMENT OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
3  309  22 ALCOHOL AND HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: ADDING FUEL TO THE FLAME. PRIMARY TUMORS OF THE LIVER REPRESENT THE FIFTH MOST COMMON TYPE OF CANCER IN THE WORLD AND THE THIRD LEADING CAUSE OF CANCER-RELATED DEATH. CASE-CONTROL STUDIES FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES REPORT THAT CHRONIC ETHANOL CONSUMPTION IS ASSOCIATED WITH AN APPROXIMATELY 2-FOLD INCREASED ODDS RATIO FOR HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC). DESPITE THE SUBSTANTIAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC DATA IN HUMANS DEMONSTRATING THAT CHRONIC ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IS A MAJOR RISK FACTOR FOR HCC DEVELOPMENT, THE PATHWAYS CAUSING ALCOHOL-INDUCED LIVER CANCER ARE POORLY UNDERSTOOD. IN THIS OVERVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN ALCOHOL AND LIVER CANCER, REVIEW THE GENETIC, ONCOGENIC, AND EPIGENETIC FACTORS THAT DRIVE HCC DEVELOPMENT SYNERGISTICALLY WITH ETHANOL INTAKE AND DISCUSS THE ESSENTIAL MOLECULAR AND METABOLIC PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN ALCOHOL-INDUCED LIVER TUMORIGENESIS.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
4 5211  35 PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS IN HUMAN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. THE EARLY STAGES OF HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IN HUMAN CHRONIC LIVER DISEASES ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE EMERGENCE OF PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS OF WHICH SOME WILL EVENTUALLY DEVELOP INTO HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC). BASIC STUDIES ON THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS OF THESE PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS MAY EVENTUALLY LEAD TO NEW THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES. CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL STUDIES ARE ALSO IMPORTANT IN ORDER TO DETERMINE OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS WITH A PRENEOPLASTIC LESION. THIS ARTICLE AIMS TO PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE CURRENT CONCEPTS OF PRENEOPLASTIC LESION IN CHRONIC LIVER DISEASES. THE MICROSCOPICAL SMALL-CELL DYSPLASTIC FOCUS IS THE SMALLEST MORPHOLOGICALLY RECOGNIZABLE PRECURSOR LESION OF HCC AND THEREFORE IS A LOGICAL TARGET OF STUDY TO ELUCIDATE THE EARLIEST EVENTS IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. IN CONTRAST, LARGE-CELL DYSPLASIA IS NOT A PRECURSOR LESION, BUT APPEARS TO BE OF CLINICAL VALUE BECAUSE OF ITS GOOD PREDICTIVE VALUE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF HCC. DYSPLASTIC NODULES (DNS) ARE MACROSCOPICALLY RECOGNIZABLE PRECURSOR LESIONS OF HCC AND HIGH-GRADE DNS (HGDNS) HAVE A RISK OF MALIGNANT TRANSFORMATION. DETECTION OF DNS AND CORRECT DIFFERENTIATION FROM SMALL HCC (<2 CM) IS SOMETIMES DIFFICULT, ESPECIALLY WHEN ONLY IMAGING TECHNIQUES ARE USED. ADDITIONAL CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL STUDIES ON IDENTIFICATION AND OPTIMAL TREATMENT OF DNS ARE NECESSARY. MOLECULAR STUDIES ON HGDNS AND SMALL HCCS MAY YIELD MUCH INFORMATION ON THE GENETIC MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE TRANSITION FROM SEVERE DYSPLASIA TO EARLY MALIGNANCY. IN CONTRAST, CURRENTLY AVAILABLE DATA INDICATE THAT (LARGE) REGENERATIVE NODULES DO NOT REPRESENT A DISTINCT STEP IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. ANIMAL MODELS WILL BE HELPFUL IN THE FURTHER UNRAVELLING OF HUMAN HCC DEVELOPMENT, PROVIDED THAT STUDIES ARE PERFORMED ON MODELS THAT ARE GOOD REPRESENTATIVES OF HUMAN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. WE PROPOSE THREE CRITERIA BY WHICH GOOD MIMICKERS CAN BE IDENTIFIED.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
5 3266  31 HEPATOCELLULAR CANCER AND GUT MICROBIOME: TIME TO UNTIE GORDIAN'S KNOT. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS ONE OF THE LEADING CAUSES OF CANCER DEATH WORLDWIDE AND THE INCIDENCE IS GROWING ON A GLOBAL SCALE. ABOUT 90% OF CASES DEVELOP ON THE CIRRHOTIC LIVER AND THE ETIOLOGY IS MULTIFACTORIAL. INCREASING NUMBER OF STUDIES SUGGEST THAT GUT MICROBIOTA INFLUENCES THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF LIVER DISEASES, INCLUDING CHRONIC HEPATIC INFLAMMATION, FIBROSIS, CIRRHOSIS, AND HCC. THE KEY ROLE OF GUT MICROBIOTA IN CARCINOGENESIS SEEMS TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH GENOMIC INSTABILITY OF HOST CELLS AND IMMUNE DYSREGULATION. RECENT CLINICAL STUDIES SHOWED THAT A STABLE AND HEALTHY MICROBIOTA INITIALLY COULD HAVE THE ABILITY TO RESIST THE EMERGENCE OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND, THEREFORE, PREVENT THE INDUCTION OF CARCINOGENIC CELLS IN VARIOUS ORGANS SUCH AS THE ESOPHAGUS, STOMACH, COLON, AND LIVER. THE PROGRESSION FROM INFLAMMATION TO CANCER IS A STEPWISE PROCESS OCCURRING BY THE CONCERTED ACTION OF SEVERAL FACTORS SUCH AS DYSBIOSIS, INCREASED GUT PERMEABILITY, DIET, METABOLOMIC, GENETIC, AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES. IN THIS ARTICLE, WE AIMED TO REVIEW THE POSSIBLE ROLE OF GUT MICROBIOTA IN THE DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESSION, AND TREATMENT OF HCC.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
6 6707  33 VIRAL HEPATITIS AND HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: STATE OF THE ART. VIRAL HEPATITIS IS ONE OF THE MAIN CAUSES LEADING TO HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC). THE CONTINUED RISE IN INCIDENCE OF HCC SUGGESTS ADDITIONAL FACTORS FOLLOWING INFECTION MAY BE INVOLVED. THIS REVIEW EXAMINES RECENT STUDIES INVESTIGATING THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF CHRONIC HEPATITIS AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. HEPATITIS B VIRUS PATIENTS WITH GENOTYPE C DISPLAY AN AGGRESSIVE DISEASE COURSE LEADING TO HCC MORE THAN OTHER GENOTYPES. FURTHERMORE, HEPATITIS B EXCRETORY ANTIGEN (HBEAG) SEEMS TO BE A MORE SENSITIVE PREDICTIVE TUMOR MARKER EXHIBITING A SIX-FOLD HIGHER RELATIVE RISK IN PATIENTS WITH POSITIVE HBSAG AND HBEAG THAN THOSE WITH HBSAG ONLY. SINGLE OR COMBINED MUTATIONS OF VIRAL GENOME CAN PREDICT HCC DEVELOPMENT IN UP TO 80% OF PATIENTS. SEVERAL MUTATIONS IN HBX-GENE ARE RELATED WITH HIGHER HCC INCIDENCE. OVEREXPRESSION OF THE CORE PROTEIN IN HCV LEADS TO HEPATOCELLULAR LIPID ACCUMULATION ASSOCIATED WITH ONCOGENESIS. REDUCED NUMBER AND DECREASED FUNCTIONALITY OF NATURAL KILLER CELLS IN CHRONIC HCV INDIVIDUALS DYSREGULATE THEIR SURVEILLANCE FUNCTION IN TUMOR AND VIRAL CELLS RESULTING IN HCC. FURTHERMORE, HIGH T-CELL IMMUNOGLOBULIN AND MUCIN 3 LEVELS SUPRESS CD8+ T-CELLS, WHICH LEAD TO IMMUNOLOGICAL DYSREGULATION. HEPATITIS D PROMOTES HCC DEVELOPMENT INDIRECTLY VIA MODIFICATIONS TO INNATE IMMUNITY, EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS AND PRODUCTION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES WITH THE LHDAG BEING THE MOST HIGHLY ASSOCIATED WITH HCC DEVELOPMENT. SUMMARIZING THE RESULTS, HBV AND HCV INFECTION REPRESENT THE MOST ASSOCIATED FORMS OF VIRAL HEPATITIS CAUSING HCC. FURTHER STUDIES ARE WARRANTED TO FURTHER IMPROVE THE PREDICTION OF HIGH-RISK PATIENTS AND DEVELOPMENT OF TARGETED THERAPEUTICS PREVENTING THE TRANSITION FROM HEPATIC INFLAMMATION-FIBROSIS TO CANCER.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
7 4421  29 MOLECULAR AND FUNCTIONAL GENETICS OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS THE FIFTH MOST COMMON CANCER AND ONE OF THE LEADING CAUSES OF CANCER DEATH WORLDWIDE. HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS A MULTISTEP PROCESS DEVELOPING FROM NORMAL THROUGH CHRONIC HEPATITIS/CIRRHOSIS AND DYSPLASTIC NODULES TO HCC. ALTHOUGH WE HAVE INSUFFICIENT UNDERSTANDING TO PROPOSE A ROBUST GENERAL MODEL, WITH ADVANCES IN MOLECULAR METHODS, THERE IS A GROWING UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HCC. HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS STRONGLY LINKED TO INCREASES IN ALLELIC LOSSES, CHROMOSOMAL CHANGES, GENE MUTATIONS, EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, AND ALTERATIONS IN MOLECULAR CELLULAR PATHWAYS. SPECIAL EMPHASIS IN THIS REVIEW IS GIVEN TO THE GENETICS, EPIGENETICS, AND REGULATION OF MAJOR SIGNALING PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN HCC SUCH AS WNT/B-CATENIN, RAS, AND PI3K/AKT/MTOR PATHWAYS. A DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNDERLYING MOLECULAR MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE PROGRESSION OF HCC CAN IMPROVE OUR PREVENTION AND DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR HCC AND BE AN IMPORTANT POTENTIAL SOURCE OF NOVEL MOLECULAR TARGETS FOR NEW THERAPIES.	2010	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
8 1940  29 EPIDEMIOLOGY AND CARCINOGENESIS OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. THE INCIDENCE OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) SHOWS MARKED VARIATION WORLDWIDE BUT THE MAGNITUDE OF THIS TUMOR IS REFLECTED BY THE OCCURRENCE OF AT LEAST 1 MILLION NEW CASES ANNUALLY AND THE UNIFORMLY DISMAL OUTLOOK WITH MEDIAN SURVIVALS OF <25 MONTHS AFTER RESECTION AND <6 MONTHS WITH SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT. THE STRIKINGLY UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF THIS TUMOR PARALLELS THE PREVALENCE OF HEPATITIS B INFECTION WITH RISING INCIDENCE IN WESTERN COUNTRIES ATTRIBUTED TO HEPATITIS C INFECTION. CHRONIC HEPATITIS AND CIRRHOSIS CONSTITUTE THE MAJOR PRENEOPLASTIC CONDITIONS IN THE MAJORITY OF HCCS AND MAY BE RELATED TO OTHER ETIOLOGIC AGENTS SUCH AS ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS INCLUDING NITRITES, HYDROCARBONS, SOLVENTS, ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES, AND THE CHEMICALS IN PROCESSED FOODS, CLEANING AGENTS, COSMETICS AND PHARMACEUTICALS, AS WELL AS PLANT TOXINS SUCH AS ANATOXINS PRODUCED BY FUNGI THAT CAUSE SPOILAGE OF GRAIN AND FOOD IN THE TROPICS. GENETIC DISEASES SUCH AS GENETIC HEMATOCHROMATOSIS, WILSON'S DISEASE, ALPHA-1-ANTITRYPSIN DEFICIENCY, AND THE INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM INCLUDING HEREDITARY TYROSINEMIA AND HEPATIC PORPHYRIA, ARE KNOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH HCC. NUMEROUS GENETIC ALTERATIONS AND THE MODULATION OF DNA METHYLATION ARE RECOGNIZED IN HCC AND IT IS LIKELY THAT THESE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES COMBINE WITH FACTORS INVOLVED IN CHRONIC HEPATOCYTE DESTRUCTION AND REGENERATION TO RESULT IN NEOPLASTIC GROWTH AND MULTIPLE MOLECULAR PATHWAYS MAY BE INVOLVED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SUBSETS OF HEPATOCELLULAR TUMORS.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
9 3263  27 HEPATITIS VIRUS AND HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: RECENT ADVANCES. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) REMAINS A GLOBAL HEALTH CHALLENGE, CAUSING 600,000 DEATHS EACH YEAR. INFECTIOUS FACTORS, INCLUDING HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV), HEPATITIS C VIRUS (HCV) AND HEPATITIS D VIRUS (HDV), HAVE LONG BEEN CONSIDERED THE MAJOR RISK FACTORS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF HCC. THESE PATHOGENS INDUCE HEPATOCYTE TRANSFORMATION THROUGH A VARIETY OF MECHANISMS, INCLUDING INSERTIONAL MUTATIONS CAUSED BY VIRAL GENE INTEGRATION, EPIGENETIC CHANGES, AND THE INDUCTION OF LONG-TERM IMMUNE DYSFUNCTION. THE DISCOVERY OF THESE MECHANISMS, WHILE ADVANCING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE DISEASE, ALSO PROVIDES TARGETS FOR NEW DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES. IN ADDITION, THE DISCOVERY AND RESEARCH OF CHRONIC HEV INFECTION OVER THE PAST DECADE INDICATE THAT THIS COMMON HEPATITIS VIRUS ALSO SEEMS TO HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO INDUCE HCC. IN THIS REVIEW, WE PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF RECENT STUDIES ON THE LINK BETWEEN HEPATITIS VIRUS AND HCC, AS WELL AS NEW DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES TO HCC BASED ON THESE FINDINGS. FINALLY, WE ALSO DISCUSS THE POTENTIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEV AND HCC. IN CONCLUSION, THESE ASSOCIATIONS WILL FURTHER OPTIMIZE THE DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF INFECTION-ASSOCIATED HCC AND CALL FOR BETTER MANAGEMENT POLICIES.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
10 4449  31 MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS-INDUCED HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV) INFECTION IS A GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM WITH APPROXIMATELY 2 BILLION PEOPLE THAT HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THE VIRUS. HBV IS A MEMBER OF A FAMILY OF SMALL, ENVELOPED DNA VIRUSES CALLED HEPADNAVIRUSES, AND HAS A PREFERENTIAL TROPISM FOR HEPATOCYTES OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES HAVE PROVED A STRONG CORRELATION BETWEEN CHRONIC HEPATITIS B VIRUS INFECTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC). HCC IS THE FIFTH MOST COMMON MALIGNANCY WITH ABOUT 700000 NEW CASES EACH YEAR, AND MORE THAN 50% OF THEM ARISE IN HBV CARRIERS. A LARGE NUMBER OF STUDIES DESCRIBE THE WAY IN WHICH HBV CAN CONTRIBUTE TO HCC DEVELOPMENT. MULTIPLE MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED, INCLUDING THE ACCUMULATION OF GENETIC DAMAGE DUE TO IMMUNE-MEDIATED HEPATIC INFLAMMATION AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS. THERE IS EVIDENCE OF THE DIRECT EFFECTS OF THE VIRAL PROTEINS HBX AND HBS ON THE CELL BIOLOGY. INTEGRATION OF HBV-DNA INTO THE HUMAN GENOME IS CONSIDERED AN EARLY EVENT IN THE CARCINOGENIC PROCESS AND CAN INDUCE, THROUGH INSERTIONAL MUTAGENESIS, THE ALTERATION OF GENE EXPRESSION AND CHROMOSOMAL INSTABILITY. HBV HAS ALSO EPIGENETIC EFFECTS THROUGH THE MODIFICATION OF THE GENOMIC METHYLATION STATUS. FURTHERMORE, THE VIRUS PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE REGULATION OF MICRORNA EXPRESSION. THIS REVIEW WILL SUMMARIZE THE MANY MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN HBV-RELATED LIVER CARCINOGENESIS.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
11 3277  25 HEPATOCYTE PLOIDY AND PATHOLOGICAL MUTATIONS IN HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: IMPACT ON ONCOGENESIS AND THERAPEUTICS. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) OCCURS IN THE CHRONIC LIVER INFLAMMATION SUCH AS VIRAL HEPATITIS, ALCOHOLIC AND NON-ALCOHOLIC STEATOHEPATITIS. WHILE ANTI-VIRAL TREATMENT HAS BEEN SIGNIFICANTLY IMPROVED, THE PREVALENCE OF HCC REMAINS HIGH AND TREATMENT IS STILL CHALLENGING. THE CONTINUATION OF HEPATOCYTE DEATH, INFLAMMATION, AND FIBROSIS LEADS TO THE ACCUMULATION OF GENE ALTERATIONS, WHICH MAY TRIGGER CARCINOGENESIS. HEPATOCYTES ARE A UNIQUE CELL TYPE HAVING MORE THAN ONE COMPLETE SET OF 23 CHROMOSOMES, TERMED POLYPLOIDY. DUE TO GENE REDUNDANCY, HEPATOCYTES MAY TOLERATE LETHAL MUTATIONS. NEXT GENERATION SEQUENCING TECHNOLOGY HAS REVEALED GENE ALTERATIONS IN HCC RELATED TO TELOMERE MAINTENANCE, WNT/BETA-CATENIN PATHWAY, P53 CELL-CYCLE PATHWAY, EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS, OXIDATIVE STRESS PATHWAY, PI3K/AKT/MTOR, AND RAS/RAF/MAPK PATHWAY WITH OR WITHOUT A CHROMOSOMAL INSTABILITY. SOME TYPE OF DRIVER GENE MUTATIONS ACCUMULATES IN HEPATOCYTES AND BREAKS THE ORCHESTRATION OF EXCESSIVE COPIES OF CHROMOSOMES, WHICH MAY LEAD TO UNFAVORABLE GENE EXPRESSIONS AND FUEL TUMORIGENESIS. RECENTLY, MOLECULAR TARGETED DRUGS, DEVELOPED WITH THE AIM OF INTERFERING WITH THESE SIGNALING PATHWAYS, ARE BEING USED FOR HCC PATIENTS IN THE CLINICS. THEREFORE, A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF HEPATOCYTE PLOIDY AND GENETIC OR EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IS INDISPENSABLE FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NOVEL THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES AGAINST HCC.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
12 4121  29 MECHANISMS OF CHEMICALLY INDUCED RENAL CARCINOGENESIS IN THE LABORATORY RODENT. LABORATORY STUDIES WITH CLASSICAL RENAL CARCINOGENS IN THE RAT AND MOUSE, AS WELL AS RESEARCH INVESTIGATION WITH SOME OF THE CHEMICALS PROVING POSITIVE FOR THE KIDNEY IN NATIONAL TOXICOLOGY PROGRAM CARCINOGENICITY BIOASSAYS, HAVE DEMONSTRATED THE EXISTENCE OF A RANGE OF DIVERSE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING RODENT KIDNEY CARCINOGENESIS. THE CLASSICAL CARCINOGENS USED AS EXPERIMENTAL MODELS FOR STUDYING RENAL TUMOR PATHOGENESIS, SUCH AS THE NITROSAMINES, ARE GENOTOXIC AND INTERACT DIRECTLY WITH DNA, FORMING DNA ADDUCTS WITH MUTAGENIC POTENTIAL. IN CONTRAST, POTASSIUM BROMATE AND FERRIC NITRILOTRIACETATE (FE-NTA), ALSO EFFECTIVE RENAL CARCINOGENS, APPEAR TO CAUSE INDIRECT DAMAGE TO DNA MEDIATED BY OXIDATIVE STRESS. A NUMBER OF NONGENOTOXIC CHEMICALS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH EPIGENETIC RENAL TUMOR INDUCTION IN RODENTS, AND THE ACTIVITY OF THESE TENDS TO INVOLVE PROLONGED STIMULATION OF CELL PROLIFERATION THROUGHOUT THE DURATION OF EXPOSURE. THIS MODE OF ACTION REFLECTS A SUSTAINED REGENERATIVE RESPONSE, EITHER DUE TO DIRECT CHEMICAL TOXICITY TO THE TUBULE CELLS, AS WITH CHLOROFORM, OR TO INDIRECT CYTOTOXICITY ASSOCIATED WITH LYSOSOMAL OVERLOAD, AS IN ALPHA2U-GLOBULIN ACCUMULATION IN MALE RATS RESULTING FROM THE ADMINISTRATION OF SUCH CHEMICALS AS D-LIMONENE AND TETRACHLOROETHYLENE. THE HISTOPATHOLOGIC NATURE OF HYDROQUINONE RENAL CARCINOGENESIS SUGGESTS THAT AN ADDITIONAL EPIGENETIC PATHWAY TO RENAL TUBULE TUMOR FORMATION IN RATS MAY BE THROUGH CHEMICAL-MEDIATED EXACERBATION OF, AND INTERACTION WITH, THE AGE-RELATED SPONTANEOUS RENAL DISEASE, CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE NEPHROPATHY. THESE VARIOUS MECHANISTIC PATHWAYS HAVE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE NATURE OF THE INDUCED CANCER PROCESS WITH RESPECT TO TUMOR INCIDENCE, LATENCY, MALIGNANCY, AND SEX PREDISPOSITION.	1998	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
13  915  34 CHRONIC HEPATITIS B VIRUS AND HEPATITIS C VIRUS INFECTIONS AND CANCER: SYNERGY BETWEEN VIRAL AND HOST FACTORS. HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV) OR HEPATITIS C VIRUS (HCV) INFECTIONS REPRESENT MAJOR CAUSES OF CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE AND HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. DESPITE INDUCING SHARED PATHOLOGICAL EVENTS LEADING TO ONCOGENIC TRANSFORMATION, THESE TWO VIRUSES PRESENT PROFOUND DIFFERENCES IN THEIR MOLECULAR FEATURES, LIFE CYCLE AND INTERPLAY WITH HOST FACTORS, WHICH SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENTIATE THE PROGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC APPROACH TO THE RELATED DISEASES. IN THE PRESENT REVIEW, WE REPORT THE MAIN MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE MULTISTEP PROCESS LEADING FROM HCV/HBV INFECTION AND CANCER DEVELOPMENT, DISCUSSING SIDE-BY-SIDE THE ANALOGIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO VIRUSES. SUCH EVENTS CAN BE BROADLY CATEGORIZED INTO (A) DIRECT ONCOGENIC EFFECTS, INVOLVING INTEGRATION IN THE HOST GENOME (IN THE CASE OF HBV) AND CHROMOSOMAL INSTABILITY, INTERFERENCE WITH ONCOSUPPRESSOR PATHWAYS, INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS, PROMOTION OF ANGIOGENESIS, EPITHELIAL-MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION, ALTERATIONS IN THE EPIGENETIC ASSET AND INTERACTION WITH NON-CODING RNAS; AND (B) INDIRECT ACTIVITIES MOSTLY MEDIATED BY HOST EVENTS, INCLUDING CHRONIC INFLAMMATION SUSTAINED BY PECULIAR CYTOKINE NETWORKS (SUCH AS INTERLEUKIN-6 AND LYMPHOTOXINS), METABOLIC DYSFUNCTIONS PROMOTED BY STEATOHEPATITIS, INTERPLAY WITH GUT MICROBIOTA AND FIBROTIC EVENTS (MAINLY IN HCV INFECTION). THIS SCENARIO SUGGESTS THAT THE INTEGRATED STUDY OF VIRAL AND HOST FACTORS MAY LEAD TO THE SUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL BIOMARKERS AND TARGETS FOR THERAPY.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
14 3932  23 LIVER REGENERATION, LIVER CANCERS AND CYCLINS. ACCUMULATING EVIDENCE HAS REVEALED THAT MALIGNANT CELL GROWTH IS REGULATED BY COMPLEX MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC FACTORS. AMONG HUMAN CANCERS, CANCER IN THE LIVER (HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC)) IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE EVIDENCE THAT IT IS USUALLY BASED ON CHRONIC LIVER DISEASES SUCH AS LIVER CIRRHOSIS OR CHRONIC HEPATITIS, IN WHICH THE LIVER IS PERSISTENTLY REGENERATING FOLLOWING HEPATIC INJURY. THIS RAISES THE POSSIBILITY THAT REPEATED HEPATOCYTE PROLIFERATION MAY CAUSE DISORDER OF GENES THAT ARE REGULATING THE CELL CYCLE IN HEPATOCYTES, THUS CAUSING HCC. IN THIS ARTICLE, RECENT STUDIES FOCUSING ON LIVER REGENERATION AND CANCER ARE REVIEWED FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE CELL CYCLE THAT IS REGULATED BY CYCLIN AND THE ASSOCIATED PROTEINS.	1998	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
15 4888  29 OXIDATIVE DAMAGE IN THE PROGRESSION OF CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE TO HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: AN INTRICATE PATHWAY. THE HISTO-PATHOLOGIC AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS LEADING TO INITIATION AND PROGRESSION OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) ARE STILL ILL-DEFINED; HOWEVER, THERE IS INCREASING EVIDENCE THAT THE GRADUAL ACCUMULATION OF MUTATIONS, GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES WHICH OCCUR IN PRENEOPLASTIC HEPATOCYTES RESULTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DYSPLASTIC FOCI, NODULES, AND FINALLY, OVERT HCC. AS WELL AS MANY OTHER NEOPLASIAS, LIVER CANCER IS CONSIDERED AN "INFLAMMATORY CANCER", ARISING FROM A CONTEXT OF INFLAMMATION, AND CHARACTERIZED BY INFLAMMATION-RELATED MECHANISMS THAT FAVOR TUMOR CELL SURVIVAL, PROLIFERATION, AND INVASION. MOLECULAR MECHANISMS THAT LINK INFLAMMATION AND NEOPLASIA HAVE BEEN WIDELY INVESTIGATED, AND IT HAS BEEN WELL ESTABLISHED THAT INFLAMMATORY CELLS RECRUITED AT THESE SITES WITH ONGOING INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY RELEASE CHEMOKINES THAT ENHANCE THE PRODUCTION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES. THE LATTER, IN TURN, PROBABLY HAVE A MAJOR PATHOGENIC ROLE IN THE CONTINUUM STARTING FROM HEPATITIS FOLLOWED BY CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, AND ULTIMATELY LEADING TO CANCER. THE RELATIONSHIP AMONGST CHRONIC LIVER INJURY, FREE RADICAL PRODUCTION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF HCC IS EXPLORED IN THE PRESENT REVIEW, PARTICULARLY IN THE LIGHT OF THE COMPLEX NETWORK THAT INVOLVES OXIDATIVE DNA DAMAGE, CYTOKINE SYNTHESIS, TELOMERE DYSFUNCTION, AND MICRORNA REGULATION.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
16 3272  44 HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA: AN UPDATE. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS THE MOST COMMON MALIGNANT TUMOR OF MALES IN THE WORLD, WITH AN INCIDENCE OF 1,000,000 NEW CASES A YEAR. IT IS ENDEMIC IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. RISK FACTORS INCLUDE CHRONIC INFECTION WITH HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV) AND HEPATITIS C VIRUS (HCV), AFLATOXIN B1 UPTAKE, HEMOCHROMATOSIS, AND ALPHA1 -ANTITRIPSIN DEFICIENCY. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES PROVIDE EVIDENCE FOR THE ASSOCIATION OF HCC WITH HBV INFECTION. THE INCIDENCE OF HCC IS HIGH IN REGIONS HYPERENDEMIC FOR HBV. CHRONIC CARRIER STATE AND MATERNAL-INFANT TRANSMISSION ARE IMPORTANT FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HCC. EVIDENCE OF DIRECT ONCOGENIC EFFECT OF H BV IS WELL ESTABLISHED, HCCS CONTAIN VIRAL DNA SEQUENCES INTEGRATED INTO HEPATOCYTE DNA THAT ACT AS RANDOM INSERTIONAL MUTAGENS, AND THESE SITES ARE NEAR GENES INVOLVED IN THE CONTROL OF PROLIFERATION AND DIFFERENTIATION. THE MECHANISM OF HEPATITIS C VIRUS IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS STILL IMPRECISE BUT A HIGH PERCENTAGE OF CASES ARE RELATED TO THIS VIRUS. CHRONIC ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AND CIRRHOSIS ARE COFACTORS THAT INCREASE THE DEVELOPMENT OF HCC IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC VIRAL INFECTION. IN EXPERIMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS A MULTIPOTENTIAL ELEMENT CALLED OVAL CELL PROLIFERATES IN THE EARLY STAGES. THE CELLULAR EVENTS ARE ACCOMPANIED BY INCREASED EXPRESSION OF SEVERAL GROWTH FACTORS THAT ENHANCE THE SURVIVAL OF CARCINOGEN-ACTIVATED CELLS BY SUPPRESSING APOPTOSIS AND INCREASING ELEMENTS ENTERING THE CELL CYCLE. HEPATIC CARCINOGENESIS IS A COMPLEX PROCESS ASSOCIATED WITH ACCUMULATION OF GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT RUN THROUGH STEPS OF INITIATION, PROMOTION AND PROGRESSION. ACTIVATION OF ONCOGENES OF THE "RAS" FAMILY AND OTHERS HAS BEEN DETECTED DURING CHEMICALLY-INDUCED HCC IN RODENTS, BUT THERE IS LITTLE EVIDENCE OF SUCH ACTIVATION IN HUMAN TUMORS. THE ROLE OF TUMOR SUPRESSOR GENES SUCH AS RETINOBLASTOMA (RB) AND P53 GENES HAS BEEN DOCUMENTED. AFLATOXIN B1 THAT CONTAMINATES FOODS IN ENDEMIC AREAS HAS A CLEAR ROLE IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. METABOLITES OF THIS TOXIN PROMOTE APURINIC SITES AND G TO T MUTATIONS IN CHROMOSOMAL DNA, THE THIRD BASE OF CODON 249 OF THE P53 GENE IS PREFERENTIALLY TARGETED TO FORM ADUCTS WITH AFLATOXIN B1, AND THIS MUTATION HAS BEEN SPECIFICALLY IDENTIFIED IN HBV INFECTION. HISTOLOGICAL AND CYTOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF HCC ARE WELL ESTABLISHED AND ARE BASED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND CYTOLOGICAL CHANGES. AN IMPORTANT ISSUE IS THE DIAGNOSIS OF LIVER "NODULES" DETECTED BY IMAGE, FROM WHICH SMALL BIOPSIES OR ASPIRATION MATERIAL IS OBTAINED. SPECIAL STUDIES SUCH AS RETICULIN, CD34, CYTOKERATIN PROFILE, AND MOC-31 CAN BE VERY USEFUL FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF PRIMARY AND METASTATIC TUMORS. TELOMERASE ACTIVITY HAS BEEN FOUND IN HCC AND NEGATIVE IN PERICANCEROUS TISSUE. IT IS MORE PRONOUNCED IN POORLY DIFFERENTIATED TUMORS AND CORRELATES WITH FACTORS OF CLINICAL IMPORTANCE, SUCH AS PROGNOSIS AND RECURRENCES. CELLS OF WELL-DIFFERENTIATED HCC HAVE AN ULTRASTRUCTURAL APPEARANCE SIMILAR TO NORMAL HEPATOCYTES. DURING THE PROCESS OF DEDIFFERENTIATION, THERE IS PROGRESSIVE LOSS OF ORGANIZATION OF INTRACELLULAR ORGANELLES. THE CELL COHESION IS LOST, INTERCELLULAR GAPS WITH MICROVILLI APPEAR, THE SINUSOIDS BECOME CAPILLARIZED, AND REPARATIVE CHANGES ARE SEEN IN THE SPACES OF DISSE. A VARIETY OF INCLUSIONS, SUCH AS MALLORY BODIES, GRANULAR MATERIAL, SECONDARY LYSOSOMES, AND DUBIN-JOHNSON PIGMENT, HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED. FIBROLAMELLAR CARCINOMA HAS A CHARACTERISTIC HISTOLOGICAL PICTURE AND ULTRASTRUCTURALLY ONCOCYTIC FEATURES. NEUROENDOCRINE GRANULES AND COMBINATION OF HCC WITH BILE DUCT CARCINOMA ARE SEEN BY ELECTRON MICROSCOPY.	2001	

17 5218  29 PREVENTION OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. PREVENTION IS THE ONLY REALISTIC APPROACH FOR REDUCING MORTALITY RATES ASSOCIATED WITH HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) WORLDWIDE. VACCINATION AGAINST HEPATITIS B AND SCREENING OF BLOOD DONATIONS ARE EFFECTIVE MEASURES OF PRIMARY PREVENTION. SCREENING OF BLOOD DONATIONS HAS LED TO A SUBSTANTIAL REDUCTION IN VIRAL HEPATITIS TRANSMISSION AMONG THE GENERAL POPULATION, AND IN TAIWAN VACCINATION AGAINST HEPATITIS B CAUSED A SIGNIFICANT REDUCTION IN HCC INCIDENCE AMONG INFANTS. PRIMARY PREVENTION ALSO INCLUDES APPROACHES THAT ALTER EPIGENETIC AND GENETIC CHANGES IN HEPATOCYTES, KNOWN TO INCREASE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO HCC, AS WELL AS TREATMENTS SLOWING PROGRESSION TO CIRRHOSIS. THE ONLY EVIDENCE THAT CHEMOPREVENTION REDUCES HCC RISK IS A MULTICENTER RANDOMIZED PROSPECTIVE STUDY IN ASIAN PATIENTS WITH ADVANCED HEPATITIS B WHO RECEIVED THE ORAL NUCLEOSIDE ANALOGUE LAMIVUDINE. CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT HCC RISK IS ALSO REDUCED IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC HEPATITIS C WHO HAVE HAD A SUSTAINED VIROLOGICAL RESPONSE TO INTERFERON THERAPY. HCC IS NOT SUBSTANTIALLY REDUCED IN PATIENTS WITH HEPATITIS B TREATED WITH INTERFERON AND PATIENTS WITH HEPATITIS C WHO DID NOT RESPOND TO INTERFERON. SECONDARY PREVENTION, THAT IS, PREVENTION OF TUMOR RECURRENCE AFTER HEPATIC RESECTION OR LOCAL ABLATIVE THERAPIES, HAS BEEN PURSUED WITH DIFFERENT APPROACHES. RETINOIDS, HEPATIC EMBOLIZATION WITH (131)I LIPIODOL, AND ADOPTIVE ADJUVANT IMMUNOTHERAPY HAVE YIELDED ENCOURAGING RESULTS. OTHER APPROACHES, INCLUDING THOSE BASED ON INTERFERON ALFA OR BETA, PROVIDED INCONCLUSIVE EVIDENCE FOR SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS OF HCC, MAINLY BECAUSE OF THE POOR METHODOLOGIES AND SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND OF THE STUDIES. DIETARY INTERVENTIONS AND ANTIAFLATOXIN AGENTS MIGHT HELP TO PREVENT HCC IN SUSCEPTIBLE INDIVIDUALS, BUT THE REAL EFFICACY OF THESE APPROACHES IS FAR FROM BEING DEMONSTRATED.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
18 6797  26 [EPIDEMIOLOGY, NATURAL HISTORY AND PATHOGENESIS OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA]. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS THE MAIN TYPE OF PRIMARY LIVER CANCERS AND THE THIRD MOST COMMON CAUSE OF CANCER MORTALITY WORLDWIDE. IN FRANCE, RISING NUMBER BETWEEN 5000 AND 6000 CASES ARE DIAGNOSED EACH YEAR. THE MAJOR RISK FACTOR FOR HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA IS CHRONIC HEPATITIS: VIRAL HEPATITIS B, VIRAL HEPATITIS C, CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL, HEMOCHROMATOSIS. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA IS CLOSELY ASSOCIATED TO LIVER CIRRHOSIS, WHICH IS A TRUE PRECANCEROUS STATE. BECAUSE HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS A LONG AND HETEROGENEOUS PROCESS, THERE IS STILL MUCH TO UNDERSTAND. MANY GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS ARE DESCRIBED LEADING TO CHANGES IN CELLULAR SIGNALLING CASCADES INVOLVED IN REGULATION OF GROWTH, DIFFERENTIATION, APOPTOSIS, MOTILITY. HEPATITIS VIRUSES PLAY A DIRECT ONCOGENIC ROLE THROUGH THE INTERACTION BETWEEN VIRAL AND CELLULAR PROTEINS, WHICH CONTROL CELL HOMEOSTASIS, OR BY THE INTEGRATION OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS GENOME INTO THE HOST GENOME. FURTHERMORE, HEPATITIS VIRUSES PLAY AN INDIRECT ONCOGENIC ROLE BY CAUSING CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND HEPATOCYTE REGENERATION RELATED TO VIRAL HEPATOPATHY. IN EXPECTATION OF A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS AND NEW TREATMENTS, PREVENTION FROM RISK FACTORS AND ULTRASONOGRAPHIC SCREENING OF PATIENTS WITH CIRRHOSIS SHOULD INCREASE PROGNOSIS.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
19 4476  24 MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS OF HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS THE FIFTH MOST COMMON CANCER AND THE THIRD LEADING CAUSE OF CANCER DEATH WORLDWIDE. HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS A MULTISTEP PROCESS EVOLVING FROM NORMAL THROUGH CHRONIC HEPATITIS/CIRRHOSIS AND DYSPLASTIC NODULES TO HCC. WITH ADVANCES IN MOLECULAR METHODS, THERE IS A GROWING UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IS STRONGLY LINKED TO INCREASES IN ALLELIC LOSSES, CHROMOSOMAL CHANGES, GENE MUTATIONS, EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS AND ALTERATIONS IN MOLECULAR CELLULAR PATHWAYS. SOME OF THESE ALTERATIONS ARE ACCOMPANIED BY A STEPWISE INCREASE IN THE DIFFERENT PATHOLOGICAL DISEASE STAGES IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. OVERALL, A DETAILED UNDERSTANDING OF THE UNDERLYING MOLECULAR MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE PROGRESSION OF HCC IS OF FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT REGIMES FOR HCC.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
20 3278  26 HEPATOEPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN VIRAL AND NONVIRAL-INDUCED HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC) IS A MAJOR PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERN AND ONE OF THE LEADING CAUSES OF TUMOUR-RELATED DEATHS WORLDWIDE. EXTENSIVE EVIDENCE ENDORSES THAT HCC IS A MULTIFACTORIAL DISEASE CHARACTERISED BY HEPATIC CIRRHOSIS MOSTLY ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND HEPATITIS B/C VIRAL INFECTIONS. INTERACTION OF VIRAL PRODUCTS WITH THE HOST CELL MACHINERY MAY LEAD TO INCREASED FREQUENCY OF GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ABERRATIONS THAT CAUSE HARMFUL ALTERATIONS IN GENE TRANSCRIPTION. THIS MAY PROVIDE A PROGRESSIVE SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE FOR NEOPLASTIC TRANSFORMATION OF HEPATOCYTES ASSOCIATED WITH PHENOTYPIC HETEROGENEITY OF INTRATUMOUR HCC CELLS, THUS POSING EVEN MORE CHALLENGES IN HCC TREATMENT DEVELOPMENT. EPIGENETIC ABERRATIONS INVOLVING DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND NONCODING MIRNA DYSREGULATION HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE INTIMATELY LINKED WITH AND PLAY A CRITICAL ROLE IN TUMOUR INITIATION, PROGRESSION, AND METASTASES. THE CURRENT REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE ABERRANT HEPATOEPIGENETICS EVENTS THAT PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS AND THEIR UTILITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF HCC THERAPY.	2016