1 2419 129 EPIGENETIC SIGNATURE OF CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESS LOAD DURING PREGNANCY MIGHT BE A POTENTIAL BIOMARKER FOR SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH. PRETERM BIRTH IS THE LEADING CAUSE OF MORTALITY IN NEWBORN INFANTS AND CAN LEAD TO SIGNIFICANT NEONATAL MORBIDITIES. SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH ACCOUNTS FOR AT LEAST 50.0% OF ALL PRETERM BIRTHS. WE ARGUE THAT CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESS LOAD, WHICH IS AN IMPORTANT RISK FACTOR FOR SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH, COULD BE REPRESENTED BY EPIGENETIC SIGNATURE OF SEVERAL SPECIFIC GENETIC LOCI IN THE MOTHER'S BLOOD. A LITERATURE SEARCH WAS DONE IN PUBMED WITH THE FOLLOWING KEYWORDS: "DNA METHYLATION," "EPIGENETICS," "MATERNAL STRESS" AND "PRETERM BIRTH" FROM YEAR 2000 TO 2017. WE SUGGEST THAT THESE GENETIC LOCI MIGHT BE RELATED TO VULNERABILITY AND HYPERSENSIBILITY OF STRESS RESPONSE DURING PREGNANCY IN WOMEN WITH PRETERM BIRTHS. THE MOTHER'S EPI-GENETIC STRESS BIOPROFILE WAS SUPPOSED TO BE A RESULT OF CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESS LOAD SINCE HER BIRTH. THIS EPIGENETIC BIOPROFILE MIGHT ALSO BE A POTENTIAL BIOMARKER FOR SPONTANEOUS PRETERM BIRTH. DNA METHYLATION CHANGES ARE TISSUE-SPECIFIC AND HUMAN STRESS RESPONSE MANIFESTS MOSTLY THROUGH THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS). NEVERTHELESS, WE FOUND EVIDENCE THAT METHYLATION CHANGES OF DNA ISOLATED FROM BLOOD LEUCOCYTES MIGHT BE A RELIABLE MEASURE OF STRESS-RELATED EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE CNS. EVALUATING BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLE ASSAYS BASED ON EPIGENETIC CHANGES TO MEASURE CHRONIC STRESS LOADS IN EXPECTANT MOTHERS CAN LEAD TO OUR ABILITY TO PREPARE MORE EFFECTIVE MEASURES FOR THE PREVENTION OF PRETERM BIRTHS, AS WELL AS LEADING TO MORE EFFECTIVE TREATMENT STRATEGIES FOR BOTH EXPECTANT MOTHERS AND THEIR NEWBORNS.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
2 1755  32 EARLY NUTRITION AND LATER OUTCOMES IN PRETERM INFANTS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE IS AN EMERGING AREA OF INTEREST THAT AMALGAMATES MANY AREAS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES AND ENCOMPASSES A WIDE RANGE OF DIVERSE DISCIPLINES FROM EPIDEMIOLOGY TO MOLECULAR BIOLOGY. EVIDENCE HAS ACCUMULATED TO SHOW THAT EARLY LIFE EXPERIENCES, BOTH IN UTERO AND IN INFANCY HAVE LONG-TERM EFFECTS ON MANY BODY SYSTEMS. THERE ARE NOW GOOD DATA TO SHOW THAT SUBOPTIMAL IN UTERO GROWTH, ESPECIALLY WHEN COMBINED WITH RAPID GROWTH ACCELERATION IN EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE MAY INCREASE THE RISK OF LATER LIFE METABOLIC DISEASE. THE MECHANISMS ARE COMPLEX BUT LIKELY TO INVOLVE EPIGENETIC MARKS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION. PRETERM INFANTS FREQUENTLY EXPERIENCE SUBOPTIMAL NUTRIENT INTAKES IN EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE AND EXHIBIT GROWTH FAILURE WITHIN THE NICU. THEY ALSO RECEIVE PRODUCTS THAT MAY NOT PROVIDE EITHER AN OPTIMAL QUANTITY OR QUALITY OF NUTRIENTS. FOLLOW-UP STUDIES HAVE NOW SHOWN MUCH HIGHER RISKS FOR LONG-TERM CHRONIC DISEASE IN CHILDREN AND ADULTS WHO WERE BORN PRETERM. THERE ARE HIGHER LEVELS OF INSULIN RESISTANCE AND ABNORMAL PARTITIONING OF FAT DEPOSITION. THE ONSET OF PUBERTY SEEMS EARLIER, AVERAGE HEIGHT IS LESS AND BLOOD PRESSURE, MEASURES OF VASCULAR HEALTH AND LIPID PROFILES SUGGEST CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH IS LIKELY TO DIFFER FROM HEALTHY TERM BORN CONTROLS. DESPITE THIS, THERE ARE NO DATA TO SUGGEST AN OVERALL BENEFIT OF LIMITING NUTRIENT INTAKE, OR RESTRICTING GROWTH IN PRETERM INFANTS. THERE ARE STRONG DATA TO SHOW THAT THE PRETERM BRAIN IS EXQUISITELY VULNERABLE TO UNDERNUTRITION, AND THAT SUBOPTIMAL NUTRIENT INTAKES MAY PERMANENTLY AFFECT LATER COGNITIVE ATTAINMENT. A CLINICAL FOCUS ON EARLY NUTRIENT INTAKES AND BREAST MILK PROVISION IS KEY TO OPTIMISING LONG-TERM HEALTH OUTCOMES.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
3 6065  35 THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF CHRONIC PHYSICAL AGGRESSION: BIOLOGICAL PATHWAYS TRIGGERED BY EARLY LIFE ADVERSITY. LONGITUDINAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES WITH BIRTH COHORTS HAVE SHOWN THAT PHYSICAL AGGRESSION IN HUMANS DOES NOT APPEAR SUDDENLY IN ADOLESCENCE AS COMMONLY THOUGHT. IN FACT, PHYSICALLY AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR IS OBSERVED AS EARLY AS 12 MONTHS AFTER BIRTH, ITS FREQUENCY PEAKS AROUND 2-4 YEARS OF AGE AND DECREASES IN FREQUENCY UNTIL EARLY ADULTHOOD. HOWEVER, A MINORITY OF CHILDREN (3-7%) MAINTAIN A HIGH FREQUENCY OF PHYSICAL AGGRESSION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE AND DEVELOP SERIOUS SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS DURING ADULTHOOD. GENETIC FACTORS AND EARLY SOCIAL EXPERIENCES, AS WELL AS THEIR INTERACTION, HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR. HOWEVER, THE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THESE ASSOCIATIONS ARE JUST BEGINNING TO BE UNCOVERED. RECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ARE RESPONSIVE TO ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS AND COULD BE INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC AGGRESSION. USING BOTH GENE CANDIDATE AND GENOMIC APPROACHES, RECENT STUDIES HAVE IDENTIFIED EPIGENETIC MARKS, SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION ALTERATIONS IN GENES INVOLVED IN THE STRESS RESPONSE AND THE SEROTONIN AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS TO BE PARTLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE LONG-LASTING EFFECTS OF EARLY ADVERSITY. FURTHER LONGITUDINAL STUDIES WITH BIOLOGICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENTS FROM BIRTH ONWARDS ARE NEEDED TO ELUCIDATE THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS THAT LEADS TO THESE LONG-LASTING EPIGENETIC MARKS ASSOCIATED WITH EARLY ADVERSITY AND AGGRESSION.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
4 2802  30 FETAL AND INFANT ORIGINS OF ASTHMA. PREVIOUS STUDIES HAVE SUGGESTED THAT ASTHMA, LIKE OTHER COMMON DISEASES, HAS AT LEAST PART OF ITS ORIGIN EARLY IN LIFE. LOW BIRTH WEIGHT HAS BEEN SHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISKS OF ASTHMA, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE AIRWAY DISEASE, AND IMPAIRED LUNG FUNCTION IN ADULTS, AND INCREASED RISKS OF RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD. THE DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY HYPOTHESIS SUGGESTS THAT THE ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN LOW BIRTH WEIGHT AND DISEASES IN LATER LIFE ARE EXPLAINED BY ADAPTATION MECHANISMS IN FETAL LIFE AND INFANCY IN RESPONSE TO VARIOUS ADVERSE EXPOSURES. VARIOUS PATHWAYS LEADING FROM ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT EXPOSURES TO GROWTH ADAPTATIONS AND RESPIRATORY HEALTH OUTCOMES HAVE BEEN STUDIED, INCLUDING FETAL AND EARLY INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS, MATERNAL SMOKING AND DIET, CHILDREN'S DIET, RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS AND ACETAMINOPHEN USE, AND GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY. STILL, THE SPECIFIC ADVERSE EXPOSURES IN FETAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE LEADING TO RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE ARE NOT YET FULLY UNDERSTOOD. CURRENT STUDIES SUGGEST THAT BOTH ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENETIC FACTORS IN VARIOUS PERIODS OF LIFE, AND THEIR EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MAY UNDERLIE THE COMPLEX ASSOCIATIONS OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT WITH RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN LATER LIFE. NEW WELL-DESIGNED EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC UNDERLYING MECHANISMS. THIS REVIEW IS FOCUSED ON SPECIFIC ADVERSE FETAL AND INFANT GROWTH PATTERNS AND EXPOSURES, GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY, POSSIBLE RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES FOR NEW STUDIES.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
5 5680  37 SHORT- AND LONG-TERM OUTCOMES OF PREECLAMPSIA IN OFFSPRING: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. PREECLAMPSIA IS A MULTISYSTEMIC CLINICAL SYNDROME CHARACTERIZED BY THE APPEARANCE OF NEW-ONSET HYPERTENSION AND PROTEINURIA OR HYPERTENSION AND END ORGAN DYSFUNCTION EVEN WITHOUT PROTEINURIA AFTER 20 WEEKS OF PREGNANCY OR POSTPARTUM. RESIDING AT THE SEVERE END OF THE SPECTRUM OF THE HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY, PREECLAMPSIA OCCURS IN 3 TO 8% OF PREGNANCIES WORLDWIDE AND IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF MATERNAL AND PERINATAL MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY, ACCOUNTING FOR 8-10% OF ALL PRETERM BIRTHS. THE MECHANISM WHEREBY PREECLAMPSIA INCREASES THE RISK OF THE NEURODEVELOPMENTAL, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND METABOLIC MORBIDITY OF THE MOTHER'S OFFSPRING IS NOT WELL KNOWN, BUT IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE PREECLAMPTIC ENVIRONMENT INDUCES EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT ADVERSELY AFFECT DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY. THESE DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES ARE CRUCIAL FOR OPTIMAL FETAL GROWTH AND SURVIVAL BUT MAY LEAD TO AN INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC MORBIDITY IN CHILDHOOD AND EVEN LATER IN LIFE. THE AIM OF THIS REVIEW IS TO SUMMARIZE BOTH THE SHORT- AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PREECLAMPSIA ON OFFSPRING BASED ON THE CURRENT LITERATURE.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
6 4078  37 MATERNAL INFLAMMATION, GROWTH RETARDATION, AND PRETERM BIRTH: INSIGHTS INTO ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. THE "FETAL ORIGIN OF ADULT DISEASE HYPOTHESIS" ORIGINALLY DESCRIBED BY BARKER ET AL. IDENTIFIED THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMPAIRED IN UTERO GROWTH AND ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE RISK AND DEATH. SINCE THEN, NUMEROUS CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES HAVE CONFIRMED THAT EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES CAN LEAD TO CARDIOVASCULAR, PULMONARY, METABOLIC, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISEASES DURING ADULTHOOD WITH AND WITHOUT ALTERATIONS IN BIRTH WEIGHT. THIS SO CALLED "FETAL PROGRAMMING" INCLUDES DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION, IMMEDIATE ADAPTATION, OR PREDICTIVE ADAPTATION AND CAN LEAD TO EPIGENETIC CHANGES AFFECTING A SPECIFIC ORGAN OR OVERALL HEALTH. THE INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENT IS DRAMATICALLY IMPACTED BY THE OVERALL MATERNAL HEALTH. BOTH PREMATURE BIRTH OR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT CAN RESULT FROM A VARIETY OF MATERNAL CONDITIONS INCLUDING UNDERNUTRITION OR DYSNUTRITION, METABOLIC DISEASES, CHRONIC MATERNAL STRESSES INDUCED BY INFECTIONS AND INFLAMMATION, AS WELL AS HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA AND SMOKING. NUMEROUS ANIMAL STUDIES HAVE SUPPORTED THE IMPORTANCE OF BOTH MATERNAL HEALTH AND MATERNAL ENVIRONMENT ON THE LONG TERM OUTCOMES OF THE OFFSPRING. WITH INCREASING RATES OF OBESITY AND DIABETES AND SURVIVAL OF PRETERM INFANTS BORN AT EARLY GESTATIONAL AGES, THE NEED TO ELUCIDATE MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR PROGRAMMING OF ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE IS ESSENTIAL FOR THE TREATMENT OF UPCOMING GENERATIONS.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
7 6234  30 THE LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT ON GROWTH AND METABOLISM. PEOPLE WHO WERE SMALL AT BIRTH AND HAD POOR INFANT GROWTH HAVE AN INCREASED RISK OF ADULT CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, OSTEOPOROSIS, AND TYPE 2 DIABETES, PARTICULARLY IF THEIR RESTRICTED EARLY GROWTH WAS FOLLOWED BY INCREASED CHILDHOOD WEIGHT GAIN. THESE RELATIONS EXTEND ACROSS THE NORMAL RANGE OF BIRTH SIZE IN A GRADED MANNER, SO REDUCED SIZE IS NOT A PREREQUISITE. IN ADDITION, LARGER BIRTH SIZE IS ASSOCIATED WITH RISKS OF OBESITY AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. THE ASSOCIATIONS APPEAR TO REFLECT DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTIC RESPONSES MADE BY THE FETUS AND INFANT BASED ON CUES ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT, INFLUENCED BY MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING DIET, BODY COMPOSITION, STRESS, AND EXERCISE LEVELS. THESE RESPONSES INVOLVE EPIGENETIC PROCESSES THAT MODIFY THE OFFSPRING'S PHENOTYPE. VULNERABILITY TO ILL HEALTH RESULTS IF THE ENVIRONMENT IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, AND LATER LIFE IS MISMATCHED TO THE PHENOTYPE INDUCED IN DEVELOPMENT, INFORMED BY THE DEVELOPMENTAL CUES. THIS MISMATCH MAY ARISE THROUGH UNBALANCED DIET OR BODY COMPOSITION OF THE MOTHER OR A CHANGE IN LIFESTYLE FACTORS BETWEEN GENERATIONS. THESE INSIGHTS OFFER NEW POSSIBILITIES FOR THE EARLY DIAGNOSIS AND PREVENTION OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
8 2605  32 EPIGENETICS-A POTENTIAL MEDIATOR BETWEEN AIR POLLUTION AND PRETERM BIRTH. PRETERM BIRTH IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF INFANT MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY AND A POTENTIAL RISK FACTOR FOR ADULT CHRONIC DISEASE. WITH OVER 15 MILLION INFANTS BORN PRETERM WORLDWIDE EACH YEAR, PRETERM BIRTH POSES A GLOBAL HEALTH CONCERN. THERE IS A POSSIBLE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN AIR POLLUTION AND PRETERM BIRTH, THOUGH STUDIES HAVE BEEN INCONSISTENT, LIKELY DUE TO VARIATION IN STUDY DESIGN. HOW AIR POLLUTION INDUCES HEALTH EFFECTS IS UNCERTAIN; HOWEVER, STUDIES HAVE REPEATEDLY DEMONSTRATED THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS. MORE RECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETICS MAY, IN TURN, BE LINKED TO PRETERM BIRTH. DISCOVERY OF ENVIRONMENTALLY MODIFIABLE EPIGENETIC PROCESSES CONNECTED TO PRETERM BIRTH MAY HELP TO IDENTIFY WOMEN AT RISK OF PRETERM BIRTH, AND ULTIMATELY LEAD TO DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PRETERM BIRTH PREVENTION MEASURES.	2016	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
9 6625  38 UNDERSTANDING RACIAL DISPARITIES OF PRETERM BIRTH THROUGH THE PLACENTA. THE RACIAL DISPARITY ASSOCIATED WITH PRETERM BIRTH IS A PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERN IN THE UNITED STATES. THE PLACENTA IS THE PRINCIPAL METABOLIC, RESPIRATORY, AND ENDOCRINE ORGAN OF THE FETUS AND A KEY ROUTE BY WHICH ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ARE TRANSMITTED FROM MOTHER TO OFFSPRING. AVAILABLE AT EVERY DELIVERY, IT MAY SERVE AS A MARKER OF DIFFERENCES IN PRENATAL EXPOSURES THAT MANIFEST DIFFERENTLY BY RACE. RECENTLY, WE DESCRIBED DIFFERENCES IN PLACENTAL PATHOLOGY BETWEEN AFRICAN-AMERICAN AND WHITE PRETERM BIRTHS: THE PREVALENCE OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION WAS HIGHER AMONG AFRICAN-AMERICAN WOMEN'S PLACENTAS COMPARED WITH THOSE OF WHITE WOMEN. SIMILARLY, RACIAL DIFFERENCES HAVE BEEN SHOWN IN PLACENTAL MALPERFUSION AND PLACENTAL WEIGHT. SOCIAL DETERMINANTS SUCH AS POVERTY AND STRESS FROM DISCRIMINATION HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH. TO DATE, HOWEVER, THE UNDERLYING BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS, WHETHER THROUGH INFLAMMATORY, OXIDATIVE STRESS, OR OTHER PATHWAYS INVOLVING EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING, REMAIN LARGELY UNKNOWN. THE PLACENTA, COMPLEMENTED BY MATERNAL AND UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD BIOMARKERS, MAY PROVIDE IMPORTANT INFORMATION ON THE PERINATAL ENVIRONMENT THAT EXPLAINS THE ORIGINS OF RACIAL DISPARITIES IN PRETERM BIRTH RATES AND SUBSEQUENT HEALTH OUTCOMES. THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS EXISTING LITERATURE AND CURRENT RESEARCH GAPS. OPPORTUNITIES ARE DISCUSSED FOR FUTURE PLACENTAL RESEARCH THAT MAY REVEAL NOVEL MECHANISMS LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW APPROACHES IN THE PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PRETERM BIRTH AND ITS OUTCOMES.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
10 5216  38 PRETERM BIRTH: LONG TERM CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL CONSEQUENCES. BACKGROUND: CARDIOVASCULAR AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASES ARE A PART OF NONCOMMUNICABLE CHRONIC DISEASES, THE LEADING CAUSES OF PREMATURE DEATH WORLDWIDE. THEY ARE RECOGNIZED AS HAVING EARLY ORIGINS THROUGH ALTERED DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING, DUE TO ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS DURING DEVELOPMENT. PRETERM BIRTH IS SUCH AN ADVERSE FACTOR. RATES OF PRETERM BIRTH INCREASED IN THE LAST DECADES, HOWEVER, WITH THE IMPROVEMENT IN PERINATAL AND NEONATAL CARE, A GROWING NUMBER OF PRETERM BORN SUBJECTS HAS NOW ENTERED ADULTHOOD. CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT PRETERM BIRTH IS ASSOCIATED WITH IMPAIRED OR ARRESTED STRUCTURAL OR FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF KEY ORGANS/SYSTEMS MAKING PRETERM INFANTS VULNERABLE TO CARDIOVASCULAR AND CHRONIC RENAL DISEASES AT ADULTHOOD. THIS REVIEW ANALYZES THE EVIDENCE OF SUCH CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL CHANGES, THE ROLE OF PERINATAL AND NEONATAL FACTORS SUCH AS ANTENATAL STEROIDS AND POTENTIAL PATHOGENIC MECHANISMS, INCLUDING DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS. CONCLUSION: PRETERM BORN SUBJECTS ARE EXPOSED TO A SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED RISK FOR ALTERED CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL FUNCTIONS AT YOUNG ADULTHOOD. ADEQUATE, SPECIFIC FOLLOW-UP MEASURES REMAIN TO BE DETERMINED. WHILE ANTENATAL STEROIDS HAVE CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED PRETERM BIRTH OUTCOMES, REPEATED THERAPY SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WITH CAUTION, AS ANTENATAL STEROIDS INDUCE LONG-TERM CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC ALTERATIONS IN ANIMALS' MODELS AND THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN THE ACCELERATED CELLULAR SENESCENCE OBSERVED IN HUMAN STUDIES CANNOT BE EXCLUDED.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
11 4085  44 MATERNAL OBESITY AND GESTATIONAL DIABETES REPROGRAM THE METHYLOME OF OFFSPRING BEYOND BIRTH BY INDUCING EPIGENETIC SIGNATURES IN METABOLIC AND DEVELOPMENTAL PATHWAYS. BACKGROUND: OBESITY IS A NEGATIVE CHRONIC METABOLIC HEALTH CONDITION THAT REPRESENTS AN ADDITIONAL RISK FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MULTIPLE PATHOLOGIES. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN HOW MATERNAL OBESITY OR GESTATIONAL DIABETES MELLITUS DURING PREGNANCY CONSTITUTE SERIOUS RISK FACTORS IN RELATION TO THE APPEARANCE OF CARDIOMETABOLIC DISEASES IN THE OFFSPRING. FURTHERMORE, EPIGENETIC REMODELLING MAY HELP EXPLAIN THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS THAT UNDERLIE THESE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL FINDINGS. THUS, IN THIS STUDY WE EXPLORED THE DNA METHYLATION LANDSCAPE OF CHILDREN BORN TO MOTHERS WITH OBESITY AND GESTATIONAL DIABETES DURING THEIR FIRST YEAR OF LIFE. METHODS: WE USED ILLUMINA INFINIUM METHYLATIONEPIC BEADCHIP ARRAYS TO PROFILE MORE THAN 770,000 GENOME-WIDE CPG SITES IN BLOOD SAMPLES FROM A PAEDIATRIC LONGITUDINAL COHORT CONSISTING OF 26 CHILDREN BORN TO MOTHERS WHO SUFFERED FROM OBESITY OR OBESITY WITH GESTATIONAL DIABETES MELLITUS DURING PREGNANCY AND 13 HEALTHY CONTROLS (MEASUREMENTS TAKEN AT 0, 6 AND 12 MONTH; TOTAL N = 90). WE CARRIED OUT CROSS-SECTIONAL AND LONGITUDINAL ANALYSES TO DERIVE DNA METHYLATION ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPMENTAL AND PATHOLOGY-RELATED EPIGENOMICS. RESULTS: WE IDENTIFIED ABUNDANT DNA METHYLATION CHANGES DURING CHILD DEVELOPMENT FROM BIRTH TO 6 MONTHS AND, TO A LESSER EXTENT, UP TO 12 MONTHS OF AGE. USING CROSS-SECTIONAL ANALYSES, WE DISCOVERED DNA METHYLATION BIOMARKERS MAINTAINED ACROSS THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE THAT COULD DISCRIMINATE CHILDREN BORN TO MOTHERS WHO SUFFERED FROM OBESITY OR OBESITY WITH GESTATIONAL DIABETES. IMPORTANTLY, ENRICHMENT ANALYSES SUGGESTED THAT THESE ALTERATIONS CONSTITUTE EPIGENETIC SIGNATURES THAT AFFECT GENES AND PATHWAYS INVOLVED IN THE METABOLISM OF FATTY ACIDS, POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES AND MITOCHONDRIAL BIOENERGETICS, SUCH AS CPT1B, SLC38A4, SLC35F3 AND FN3K. FINALLY, WE OBSERVED EVIDENCE OF AN INTERACTION BETWEEN DEVELOPMENTAL DNA METHYLATION CHANGES AND MATERNAL METABOLIC CONDITION ALTERATIONS. CONCLUSIONS: OUR OBSERVATIONS HIGHLIGHT THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF DEVELOPMENT AS BEING THE MOST CRUCIAL FOR EPIGENETIC REMODELLING. FURTHERMORE, OUR RESULTS SUPPORT THE EXISTENCE OF SYSTEMIC INTRAUTERINE FOETAL PROGRAMMING LINKED TO OBESITY AND GESTATIONAL DIABETES THAT AFFECTS THE CHILDHOOD METHYLOME BEYOND BIRTH, WHICH INVOLVES ALTERATIONS RELATED TO METABOLIC PATHWAYS, AND WHICH MAY INTERACT WITH ORDINARY POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES.	2023	
                    
12 5215  25 PRETERM BIRTH AND ITS LONG-TERM EFFECTS: METHYLATION TO MECHANISMS. THE EPIGENETIC PATTERNS ESTABLISHED DURING DEVELOPMENT MAY INFLUENCE GENE EXPRESSION OVER A LIFETIME AND INCREASE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CHRONIC DISEASE. BEING BORN PRETERM (<37 WEEKS OF GESTATION) IS ASSOCIATED WITH INCREASED RISK MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY FROM BIRTH UNTIL ADULTHOOD. THIS BRIEF REVIEW EXPLORES THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF DNA METHYLATION IN PRETERM BIRTH (PTB) AND ITS POSSIBLE LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES AND PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES CENTRAL TO PTB AND RECENT DNA METHYLATION STUDIES OF PTB.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
13 2274  31 EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND FETAL PROGRAMMING. FETAL PROGRAMMING ENCOMPASSES THE ROLE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY IN RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND NUTRITIONAL SIGNALS DURING EARLY LIFE AND ITS POTENTIAL ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES (RISK OF CARDIOVASCULAR, METABOLIC AND BEHAVIOURAL DISEASES) IN LATER LIFE. THE FIRST STUDIES IN THIS FIELD HIGHLIGHTED AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN POOR FETAL GROWTH AND CHRONIC ADULT DISEASES. HOWEVER, ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNALS DURING EARLY LIFE MAY LEAD TO ADVERSE LONG-TERM EFFECTS INDEPENDENTLY OF OBVIOUS EFFECTS ON FETAL GROWTH. ADVERSE LONG-TERM EFFECTS REFLECT A MISMATCH BETWEEN EARLY (FETAL AND NEONATAL) ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND THE CONDITIONS THAT THE INDIVIDUAL WILL CONFRONT LATER IN LIFE. THE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THIS RISK REMAIN UNCLEAR. HOWEVER, EXPERIMENTAL DATA IN RODENTS AND RECENT OBSERVATIONS IN HUMANS SUGGEST THAT EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN REGULATORY GENES AND GROWTH-RELATED GENES PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN FETAL PROGRAMMING. IMPROVEMENTS IN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS AT PLAY IN FETAL PROGRAMMING WOULD MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS FOR DETECTING INFANTS AT HIGH RISK OF ADULT-ONSET DISEASES. SUCH IMPROVEMENTS SHOULD ALSO LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF PREVENTIVE AND THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
14 3582  28 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
15 4496  35 MORE THAN GENES: THE ADVANCED FETAL PROGRAMMING HYPOTHESIS. MANY LINES OF DATA, INITIAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES AS WELL AS SUBSEQUENT EXTENSIVE EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES, INDICATE THAT EARLY-LIFE EVENTS PLAY A POWERFUL ROLE IN INFLUENCING LATER SUCEPTIBILITY TO CERTAIN CHRONIC DISEASES. SUCH EVENTS MIGHT BE OVER- OR UNDERNUTRITION, EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS, BUT ALSO CHANGES IN HORMONES, IN PARTICULAR STRESS HORMONES. TYPICALLY, THOSE EVENTS ARE TRIGGERED BY THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF THE MOTHER. HOWEVER, RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT PATERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL OR NUTRITIONAL FACTORS AFFECT THE PHENOTYPE OF THE OFFSPRING AS WELL. THE MATERNAL AND PATERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ACT ON THE PHENOTYPE OF THE OFFSPRING VIA EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION OF ITS GENOME. THE ADVANCED FETAL PROGRAMMING HYPOTHESIS PROPOSES AN ADDITIONAL NON-ENVIRONMENTALLY DRIVEN MECHANISM: MATERNAL AND ALSO PATERNAL GENES MAY INFLUENCE THE MATURATING SPERM, THE OOCYTE, AND LATER THE EMBRYO/FETUS, LEADING TO THEIR EPIGENETIC ALTERATION. THUS, THE OBSERVED PHENOTYPE OF THE OFFSPRING MAY BE ALTERED BY MATERNAL/PATERNAL GENES INDEPENDENT OF THE FETAL GENOME. MEANWHILE, SEVERAL INDEPENDENT ASSOCIATION STUDIES IN HUMANS DEALING WITH METABOLIC AND NEUROLOGICAL TRAITS ALSO SUGGEST THAT MATERNAL GENES MIGHT AFFECT THE OFFSPRING PHENOTYPE INDEPENDENT OF THE TRANSMISSION OF THAT PARTICULAR GENE TO THE OFFSPRING. CONSIDERING THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS HYPOTHESIS, SOME CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM TRANSGENIC OR KNOCKOUT ANIMAL MODELS AND BASED ON THE CAUSALITY BETWEEN A GENETIC ALTERATION AND A PHENOTYPE, NEED TO BE CHALLENGED. POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT, DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPY OF HUMAN GENETIC DISEASES HAVE TO BE INVESTIGATED.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
16 1779  40 EDITORIAL: MATERNAL INFLAMMATION DURING PREGNANCY: A MODIFIABLE PATHWAY TOWARD IMPROVING OFFSPRING SOCIOEMOTIONAL OUTCOMES IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE. CHILDHOOD PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IS A WELL-ESTABLISHED PREDICTOR OF POOR ADULT LIFE-COURSE OUTCOMES INCLUDING LOWER RATES OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND REDUCED FAMILY INCOME, WITH A TOTAL ECONOMIC LOSS OF $2.1 TRILLION IN THE UNITED STATES.(1) GIVEN THIS HIGH LEVEL OF INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETAL BURDEN, MUCH EFFORT HAS BEEN DEVOTED TO IDENTIFYING THE MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS THAT CONFER RISK FOR PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD. INDEED, NUMEROUS ASPECTS OF EARLY LIFE ADVERSITY, SUCH AS SOCIOECONOMIC DISADVANTAGE, STRESSFUL/TRAUMATIC LIFE EVENTS, AND DISRUPTED PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS, DEMONSTRATE STRONG ASSOCIATIONS WITH SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROBLEMS AND PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS INTO ADOLESCENCE.(2) HOWEVER, THE UNDERLYING BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS THAT ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO THIS RISK TRAJECTORY REMAIN LESS WELL UNDERSTOOD. ONE PROPOSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM THAT IS RAPIDLY GAINING MOMENTUM IN THE FIELD OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY CONCERNS EXCESSIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM ACTIVATION AND/OR PROINFLAMMATORY RESPONSES IN THE ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE.(3) OF PARTICULAR INTEREST IS THE PRENATAL PERIOD, REPRESENTING A WINDOW OF VULNERABILITY IN WHICH PRENATAL EXPOSURES PREPARE OR PROGRAM THE FETUS FOR THE EXPECTED POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT.(3-5) MORE SPECIFICALLY, FETAL PROGRAMMING POSITS THAT THE EFFECTS OF MATERNAL ADVERSITY DURING PREGNANCY ARE, AT LEAST IN PART, TRANSMITTED TO THE FETUS VIA MULTIPLE RELATED PATHWAYS INCLUDING CHRONIC MATERNAL INFLAMMATION AND/OR OVERACTIVATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL AXIS, RESULTING IN ABERRANT MATERNAL-FETAL IMMUNE/GLUCOCORTICOID SYSTEMS AND DOWNSTREAM EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPING FETUS. TOGETHER, THESE FACTORS WORK TO INCREASE THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF OFFSPRING TO ADVERSITY IN THE POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT AND, IN TURN, ENHANCE RISK FOR PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS.(3-6) HOWEVER, MUCH OF THE EXISTING LITERATURE IS BASED ON PRECLINICAL ANIMAL MODELS WITH COMPARATIVELY FEWER CLINICAL STUDIES.(3) AS SUCH, THERE REMAINS A PAUCITY OF LARGE, PROSPECTIVELY DESIGNED CLINICAL STUDIES EXAMINING MATERNAL PROINFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS DURING PREGNANCY IN RELATION TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY IN OFFSPRING. AS PART OF THE LANDMARK NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH-FUNDED ECHO (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON CHILD HEALTH OUTCOMES) CONSORTIUM, THE STUDY BY FRAZIER ET AL.(7) REPRESENTS ONE OF THE LARGEST INVESTIGATIONS LINKING PERINATAL MATERNAL PROINFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS WITH CO-OCCURRING PSYCHIATRIC SYMPTOMS IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS.	2023	

17 4802  36 OBESITY AND LIFESPAN HEALTH--IMPORTANCE OF THE FETAL ENVIRONMENT. A MARKED INCREASE IN THE FREQUENCY OF OBESITY AT THE POPULATION LEVEL HAS RESULTED IN AN INCREASING NUMBER OF OBESE WOMEN ENTERING PREGNANCY. THE INCREASING REALIZATION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FETAL ENVIRONMENT IN RELATION TO CHRONIC DISEASE ACROSS THE LIFESPAN HAS FOCUSED ATTENTION ON THE ROLE OF MATERNAL OBESITY IN FETAL DEVELOPMENT. PREVIOUS STUDIES HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT OBESITY DURING ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD CAN BE TRACED BACK TO FETAL AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EXPOSURES. THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL EVENTS, SUCH AS EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS, THE POTENTIAL FOR AN INCREASE IN INFLAMMATORY BURDEN, EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAMMING CHANGES SUCH AS THE VARIABLE DEVELOPMENT OF WHITE VERSUS BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE, AND ALTERATIONS IN ORGAN ONTOGENY. WE HYPOTHESIZE THAT THESE MECHANISMS PROMOTE AN UNFAVORABLE FETAL ENVIRONMENT AND CAN HAVE A LONG-STANDING IMPACT, WITH EARLY MANIFESTATIONS OF CHRONIC DISEASE THAT CAN RESULT IN AN INCREASED DEMAND FOR FUTURE HEALTH CARE. IN ORDER TO IDENTIFY APPROPRIATE PREVENTIVE MEASURES, ATTENTION NEEDS TO BE PLACED BOTH ON REDUCING MATERNAL OBESITY AS WELL AS UNDERSTANDING THE MOLECULAR, CELLULAR, AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT MAY BE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PRENATAL ONSET OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
18  247  36 ADULTHOOD ASTHMA AS A CONSEQUENCE OF CHILDHOOD ADVERSITY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF EPIGENETICALLY AFFECTED GENES. THERE IS AN ACCUMULATING DATA THAT SHOWS RELATION BETWEEN CHILDHOOD ADVERSITY AND VULNERABILITY TO CHRONIC DISEASES AS WELL AS EPIGENETIC INFLUENCES THAT IN TURN GIVE RISE TO THESE DISEASES. ASTHMA IS ONE OF THE CHRONIC DISEASES THAT IS INFLUENCED FROM GENETIC REGULATION OF THE INFLAMMATORY BIOMOLECULES AND THEREFORE THE HYPOTHESIS IN THIS RESEARCH WAS CHILDHOOD ADVERSITY MIGHT HAVE CAUSED EPIGENETIC DIFFERENTIATION IN THE ASTHMA-RELATED GENES IN THE POPULATION WHO HAD CHILDHOOD TRAUMA. TO TEST THIS HYPOTHESIS, THE LITERATURE WAS SYSTEMATICALLY REVIEWED TO EXTRACT EPIGENETICALLY MODIFIED GENE DATA OF THE ADULTS WHO HAD CHILDHOOD ADVERSITY, AND AFFECTED GENES WERE FURTHER EVALUATED FOR THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH ASTHMA. PRISMA GUIDELINES WERE ADOPTED AND PUBMED AND GOOGLE SCHOLAR WERE INCLUDED IN THE SEARCHED DATABASES, TO EVALUATE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS IN ASTHMA-RELATED GENES OF PHYSICALLY, EMOTIONALLY OR SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN. AFTER RETRIEVING A TOTAL OF 5245 ARTICLES, 36 OF THEM WERE INCLUDED IN THE STUDY. SEVERAL GENES AND PATHWAYS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO PATHOGENESIS OF ASTHMA DEVELOPMENT, INCREASED INFLAMMATION, OR RESPONSE TO ASTHMA TREATMENT WERE FOUND EPIGENETICALLY AFFECTED BY CHILDHOOD TRAUMAS. CHILDHOOD ADVERSITY, CAUSING EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN DNA, MAY LEAD TO ASTHMA DEVELOPMENT OR INFLUENCE THE COURSE OF THE DISEASE AND THEREFORE SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT FOR THE PROLONGED HEALTH CONSEQUENCES.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
19 2677  28 EVALUATING THE CHALLENGES AND REPRODUCIBILITY OF STUDIES INVESTIGATING DNA METHYLATION SIGNATURES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS. PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS CAN INCREASE THE RISK OF A WIDE RANGE OF NEGATIVE HEALTH OUTCOMES. STUDIES HAVE BEEN COMPLETED TO DETERMINE IF DNA METHYLATION CHANGES OCCUR IN THE HUMAN BRAIN BECAUSE OF STRESS AND ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LONG-TERM EFFECTS AND DISEASE, BUT RESULTS HAVE BEEN INCONSISTENT. HUMAN CANDIDATE GENE STUDIES (150) AND EPIGENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES (67) WERE SYSTEMATICALLY EVALUATED TO ASSESS HOW DNA METHYLATION IS IMPACTED BY STRESS DURING THE PRENATAL PERIOD, EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ADULTHOOD. THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN DNA METHYLATION OF NR3C1 EXON 1F AND CHILD MALTREATMENT AND EARLY LIFE ADVERSITY WAS WELL DEMONSTRATED, BUT OTHER GENES DID NOT EXHIBIT A CLEAR ASSOCIATION. THE REPRODUCIBILITY OF INDIVIDUAL CPG SITES IN EPIGENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES WAS ALSO POOR. HOWEVER, BIOLOGICAL PATHWAYS, INCLUDING STRESS RESPONSE, BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND IMMUNITY, HAVE BEEN CONSISTENTLY IDENTIFIED ACROSS DIFFERENT STRESSORS THROUGHOUT THE LIFE SPAN. FUTURE STUDIES WOULD BENEFIT FROM THE INCREASED SAMPLE SIZE, LONGITUDINAL DESIGN, STANDARDIZED METHODOLOGY, OPTIMAL QUALITY CONTROL, AND IMPROVED STATISTICAL PROCEDURES.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
20 1370  38 DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE THEORY IN CARDIOLOGY. NUMEROUS EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES DISCLOSED THAT BIRTH WEIGHT IS INVERSELY ASSOCIATED WITH THE INCIDENCE OF THE LIFESTYLE-RELATED DISORDERS IN ADULT LIFE, SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, DIABETES, AND /OR CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. LOWER BIRTH WEIGHT OCCURS IN NUMEROUS UNDESIRED INTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENTS INCLUDING MALNUTRITION, SMOKING, ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION, OR STRESS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) THEORY IS BASED ON THE CONCEPT THAT THE ORIGINS OF LIFESTYLE-RELATED DISEASE IS FORMED AT THE TIME OF FERTILIZATION, EMBRYONIC, FETAL, AND NEONATAL STAGES BY THE INTERRELATION BETWEEN GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENTS (NUTRITION, STRESS, OR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS). ADULT DISEASE DEVELOPS AFTER DELIVERY FACING TO ABNORMAL ENVIRONMENTS SUCH AS OVER-NUTRITION, MUCH STRESS, OR LACK OF EXERCISE. DISEASE DEVELOPS THROUGH THESE TWO INSULTS. THIS CONCEPT WAS FIRST PROPOSED AS THE "BARKER HYPOTHESIS." DAVID BARKER HAD DISCOVERED THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LOWER BIRTH WEIGHT AND THE HIGHER PREVALENCE OF ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE MORTALITY. PREVIOUS EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES HAVE FOUND THE PEOPLE EXPOSED TO FAMINE DURING EARLY LIFE HAD HIGHER RISKS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES IN ADULTHOOD. YET, THE EXACT MECHANISMS THAT PERMANENTLY CHANGE THE STRUCTURE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND ENDOCRINE STATUS OF AN INDIVIDUAL ACROSS THEIR LIFESPAN FOLLOWING ALTERED GROWTH DURING FETAL LIFE ARE NOT ENTIRELY CLEAR. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES INCLUDING PROSPECTIVE COHORT AND OBSERVATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE PEOPLE EXPOSED TO MALNUTRITION DURING FETAL OR INFANCY HAVE DISCLOSED THE STRONG RELATION BETWEEN THE LOWER BIRTH WEIGHT AND THE HIGHER CARDIOVASCULAR RISKS IN ADULTS. RECENT PROGRESS OF EPIGENETIC STUDIES UNVEILED STRONG GENETIC ASSOCIATION. HORMONAL REGULATION AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS HAVE AN IMPORTANT ROLE FOR PROPER ORGAN DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS. THE MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF PREDISPOSITION IS SUPPOSED TO BE THE EPIGENETICS MODIFICATIONS. THEIR DYSREGULATION IS RELATED TO THE ACQUISITION OF THE DISEASE-SUSCEPTIBLE TRAIT. IN THIS REVIEW, WE OVERVIEW THE CONCEPT OF DOHAD AND INTRODUCE RELATED CLINICAL AND BASIC RESEARCH.	2020