1 2343 96 EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF MACROPHAGE POLARIZATION IN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVDS) ARE THE LEADING CAUSE OF HOSPITALIZATION AND DEATH WORLDWIDE, ESPECIALLY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. THE INCREASED PREVALENCE RATE AND MORTALITY DUE TO CVDS, DESPITE THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEVERAL APPROACHES FOR PREVENTION AND TREATMENT, ARE ALARMING TRENDS IN GLOBAL HEALTH. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND MACROPHAGE INFILTRATION ARE KEY REGULATORS OF THE INITIATION AND PROGRESSION OF CVDS. RECENT DATA SUGGEST THAT EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS, SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, POSTTRANSLATIONAL HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND RNA MODIFICATIONS, REGULATE CELL DEVELOPMENT, DNA DAMAGE REPAIR, APOPTOSIS, IMMUNITY, CALCIUM SIGNALING, AND AGING IN CARDIOMYOCYTES; AND ARE INVOLVED IN MACROPHAGE POLARIZATION AND CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TO CARDIAC DISEASE DEVELOPMENT. CARDIAC MACROPHAGES NOT ONLY TRIGGER DAMAGING INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES DURING ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE FORMATION, MYOCARDIAL INJURY, AND HEART FAILURE BUT ARE ALSO INVOLVED IN TISSUE REPAIR, REMODELING, AND REGENERATION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE THE KEY EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS THAT INFLUENCE MACROPHAGE POLARIZATION AND CONTRIBUTE TO THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CVDS, AND HIGHLIGHT THEIR POTENTIAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADVANCED EPIGENETIC THERAPIES. 2023 2 3366 33 HISTONE METHYLATION RELATED THERAPEUTIC CHALLENGE IN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. THE EPIDEMIC OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVDS) IS PREDICTED TO SPREAD RAPIDLY IN ADVANCED COUNTRIES ACCOMPANIED BY THE HIGH PREVALENCE OF RISK FACTORS. IN TERMS OF PATHOGENESIS, THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CVDS IS FEATURED BY MULTIPLE DISORDERS, INCLUDING VASCULAR INFLAMMATION ACCOMPANIED BY SIMULTANEOUSLY PERTURBED PATHWAYS, SUCH AS CELL DEATH AND ACUTE/CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY REACTIONS. EPIGENETIC ALTERATION IS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF GENOME STABILIZATION AND CELLULAR HOMEOSTASIS. THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN CVD PROGRESSION AND HISTONE MODIFICATIONS IS WIDELY KNOWN. AMONG THE HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, HISTONE METHYLATION IS A REVERSIBLE PROCESS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND HOMEOSTASIS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM. ABNORMAL METHYLATION CAN PROMOTE CVD PROGRESSION. THIS REVIEW DISCUSSES HISTONE METHYLATION AND THE ENZYMES INVOLVED IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM AND DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF HISTONE METHYLTRANSFERASES AND DEMETHYLASES ON THE PATHOGENESIS OF CVDS. WE WILL FURTHER DEMONSTRATE KEY PROTEINS MEDIATED BY HISTONE METHYLATION IN BLOOD VESSELS AND REVIEW HISTONE METHYLATION-MEDIATED CARDIOMYOCYTES AND CELLULAR FUNCTIONS AND PATHWAYS IN CVDS. FINALLY, WE WILL SUMMARIZE THE ROLE OF INHIBITORS OF HISTONE METHYLATION AND DEMETHYLATION IN CVDS AND ANALYZE THEIR THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL, BASED ON PREVIOUS STUDIES. 2021 3 2168 37 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN MONOCYTES/MACROPHAGES REGULATE INFLAMMATION IN CARDIOMETABOLIC AND VASCULAR DISEASE. CARDIOMETABOLIC AND VASCULAR DISEASE, WITH THEIR ASSOCIATED SECONDARY COMPLICATIONS, ARE THE LEADING CAUSE OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN WESTERN SOCIETY. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION IS A COMMON THEME THAT UNDERLIES INITIATION AND PROGRESSION OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. IN THIS REGARD, MONOCYTES/MACROPHAGES ARE KEY PLAYERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY STATE. OVER THE PAST DECADE, EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS, SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION AND POSTTRANSLATIONAL HISTONE PROCESSING, HAVE EMERGED AS IMPORTANT REGULATORS OF IMMUNE CELL PHENOTYPES. ACCUMULATING STUDIES REVEAL THE IMPORTANCE OF EPIGENETIC ENZYMES IN THE DYNAMIC REGULATION OF KEY SIGNALING PATHWAYS THAT ALTER MONOCYTE/MACROPHAGE PHENOTYPES IN RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HIGHLIGHT THE CURRENT PARADIGMS OF MONOCYTE/MACROPHAGE POLARIZATION AND THE EMERGING ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION IN THE REGULATION OF MONOCYTE/MACROPHAGE PHENOTYPE IN OBESITY, DIABETES MELLITUS, ATHEROSCLEROSIS, AND ABDOMINAL AORTIC ANEURYSMS. 2019 4 2532 30 EPIGENETICS IN ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND INFLAMMATION. ATHEROSCLEROSIS IS A MULTIFACTORIAL DISEASE WITH A SEVERE BURDEN ON WESTERN SOCIETY. RECENT INSIGHTS INTO THE PATHOGENESIS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS UNDERSCORE THE IMPORTANCE OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION IN BOTH THE INITIATION AND PROGRESSION OF VASCULAR REMODELLING. EXPRESSION OF IMMUNOREGULATORY MOLECULES BY VASCULAR WALL COMPONENTS WITHIN THE ATHEROSCLEROTIC LESIONS IS ACCORDINGLY THOUGHT TO CONTRIBUTE TO THE ONGOING INFLAMMATORY PROCESS. BESIDES GENE REGULATORY PROTEINS (TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS), EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ALSO PLAY AN ESSENTIAL AND FUNDAMENTAL ROLE IN THE TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION. THESE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS CHANGE THE ACCESSIBILITY OF CHROMATIN BY DNA METHYLATION AND HISTONE MODIFICATIONS. EPIGENETIC MODULATORS ARE THUS CRITICALLY INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF VASCULAR, IMMUNE AND TISSUE-SPECIFIC GENE EXPRESSION WITHIN THE ATHEROSCLEROTIC LESION. IMPORTANTLY, EPIGENETIC PROCESSES ARE REVERSIBLE AND MAY PROVIDE AN EXCELLENT THERAPEUTIC TARGET. THE CONCEPT OF EPIGENETIC REGULATION IS GRADUALLY BEING RECOGNIZED AS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS. RECENT RESEARCH PROVIDES AN ESSENTIAL LINK BETWEEN INFLAMMATION AND REPROGRAMMING OF THE EPIGENOME. IN THIS REVIEW WE THEREFORE DISCUSS THE BASIS OF EPIGENETIC REGULATION - AND THE CONTRIBUTION THEREOF IN THE REGULATION OF INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES IN GENERAL AND DURING ATHEROSCLEROSIS IN PARTICULAR. MOREOVER WE HIGHLIGHT POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS BASED ON EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. 2010 5 5933 38 TARGETING EPIGENETICS AND NON-CODING RNAS IN ATHEROSCLEROSIS: FROM MECHANISMS TO THERAPEUTICS. ATHEROSCLEROSIS, THE PRINCIPAL CAUSE OF CARDIOVASCULAR DEATH WORLDWIDE, IS A PATHOLOGICAL DISEASE CHARACTERIZED BY FIBRO-PROLIFERATION, CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, LIPID ACCUMULATION, AND IMMUNE DISORDER IN THE VESSEL WALL. AS THE ATHEROMATOUS PLAQUES DEVELOP INTO ADVANCED STAGE, THE VULNERABLE PLAQUES ARE PRONE TO RUPTURE, WHICH CAUSES ACUTE CARDIOVASCULAR EVENTS, INCLUDING ISCHEMIC STROKE AND MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION. EMERGING EVIDENCE HAS SUGGESTED THAT ATHEROSCLEROSIS IS ALSO AN EPIGENETIC DISEASE WITH THE INTERPLAY OF MULTIPLE EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. THE EPIGENETIC BASIS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS HAS TRANSFORMED OUR KNOWLEDGE OF EPIGENETICS FROM AN IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENON TO A BURGEONING FIELD IN CARDIOVASCULAR RESEARCH. HERE, WE PROVIDE A SYSTEMATIC AND UP-TO-DATE OVERVIEW OF THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF THREE DISTINCT BUT INTERRELATED EPIGENETIC PROCESSES (INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE METHYLATION/ACETYLATION, AND NON-CODING RNAS), IN ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE DEVELOPMENT AND INSTABILITY. MECHANISTIC AND CONCEPTUAL ADVANCES IN UNDERSTANDING THE BIOLOGICAL ROLES OF VARIOUS EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS IN REGULATING GENE EXPRESSION AND FUNCTIONS OF ENDOTHELIAL CELLS (VASCULAR HOMEOSTASIS, LEUKOCYTE ADHESION, ENDOTHELIAL-MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION, ANGIOGENESIS, AND MECHANOTRANSDUCTION), SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS (PROLIFERATION, MIGRATION, INFLAMMATION, HYPERTROPHY, AND PHENOTYPIC SWITCH), AND MACROPHAGES (DIFFERENTIATION, INFLAMMATION, FOAM CELL FORMATION, AND POLARIZATION) ARE DISCUSSED. THE INHERENTLY DYNAMIC NATURE AND REVERSIBILITY OF EPIGENETIC REGULATION, ENABLES THE POSSIBILITY OF EPIGENETIC THERAPY BY TARGETING EPIGENETIC "WRITERS", "READERS", AND "ERASERS". SEVERAL FOOD DRUG ADMINISTRATION-APPROVED SMALL-MOLECULE EPIGENETIC DRUGS SHOW PROMISE IN PRE-CLINICAL STUDIES FOR THE TREATMENT OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS. FINALLY, WE DISCUSS POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC IMPLICATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH INVOLVING CARDIOVASCULAR EPIGENETICS, WITH AN AIM TO PROVIDE A TRANSLATIONAL PERSPECTIVE FOR IDENTIFYING NOVEL BIOMARKERS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS, AND TRANSFORMING PRECISION CARDIOVASCULAR RESEARCH AND DISEASE THERAPY IN MODERN ERA OF EPIGENETICS. 2019 6 4715 28 NON-CODING RNA REGULATION OF T CELL BIOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR AGE-ASSOCIATED CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. PREVALENCE OF AGE-ASSOCIATED CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES (CVD) HAS DRAMATICALLY INCREASED AS A RESULT OF IMPROVEMENTS IN LIFE EXPECTANCY. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION IS A SHARED PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURE OF AGE-ASSOCIATED CVDS, INDICATING A ROLE FOR THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE ONSET AND DEVELOPMENT OF CVDS. INDEED, AGEING ELICITS PROFOUND CHANGES IN BOTH THE CARDIOVASCULAR AND IMMUNE SYSTEM, ESPECIALLY IN THE T CELL COMPARTMENT. ALTHOUGH SUCH CHANGES HAVE BEEN WELL DESCRIBED AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL, THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS UNDERLYING IMMUNE-MEDIATED CARDIOVASCULAR AGEING REMAIN LARGELY UNEXPLORED. NON-CODING RNAS (NCRNAS) COMPRISE A HETEROGENEOUS FAMILY OF RNA TRANSCRIPTS THAT REGULATE GENE EXPRESSION AT THE EPIGENETIC, TRANSCRIPTIONAL, POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL, AND POST-TRANSLATIONAL LEVELS. NON-CODING RNAS HAVE RECENTLY EMERGED AS MASTER MODULATORS OF T CELL IMMUNITY. IN THIS REVIEW, THE STATE-OF-THE-ART KNOWLEDGE ON NCRNA REGULATORY EFFECTS OVER T CELL DIFFERENTIATION, FUNCTION, AND AGEING IN THE CONTEXT OF AGE-ASSOCIATED CVDS, SUCH AS ATHEROSCLEROSIS, ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROMES, AND HEART FAILURE, IS DISCUSSED. 2018 7 2291 27 EPIGENETIC REGULATION IN PATHOLOGY OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS: A NOVEL PERSPECTIVE. ATHEROSCLEROSIS, CHARACTERIZED BY ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUES, IS A COMPLEX PATHOLOGICAL PROCESS THAT INVOLVES DIFFERENT CELL TYPES AND CAN BE SEEN AS A CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE. IN THE ADVANCED STAGE, THE RUPTURED ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE CAN INDUCE DEADLY ACCIDENTS INCLUDING ISCHEMIC STROKE AND MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION. EPIGENETICS REGULATION, INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATION, AND NON-CODING RNA MODIFICATION. MAINTAINS CELLULAR IDENTITY VIA AFFECTING THE CELLULAR TRANSCRIPTOME. THE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION PROCESS, MEDIATING BY EPIGENETIC ENZYMES, IS DYNAMIC UNDER VARIOUS STIMULI, WHICH CAN BE REVERSELY ALTERED. RECENTLY, NUMEROUS STUDIES HAVE EVIDENCED THE CLOSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND EPIGENETIC REGULATIONS IN ATHEROSCLEROSIS, PROVIDING US WITH A NOVEL PERSPECTIVE IN RESEARCHING MECHANISMS AND FINDING NOVEL THERAPEUTIC TARGETS OF THIS SERIOUS DISEASE. HERE, WE CRITICALLY REVIEW THE RECENT DISCOVERIES BETWEEN EPIGENETIC REGULATION MECHANISMS IN ATHEROSCLEROSIS. 2021 8 1871 34 EMERGING ROLE OF EPIGENETICS IN EXPLAINING RELATIONSHIP OF PERIODONTITIS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES SUCH AS ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASES OR STROKE ARE AMONG THE LEADING CAUSE OF DEATHS GLOBALLY, AND EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT THESE DISEASES ARE MODULATED BY A MULTIFACTORIAL AND COMPLEX INTERPLAY OF GENETIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND LIFESTYLE FACTORS. GENETIC PREDISPOSITION AND CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS HAVE BEEN EXPLORED TO BE INVOLVED IN THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CVD. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO AN INDIVIDUAL'S PROPENSITY TO DEVELOP MAJOR CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS THROUGH EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS OF DNA AND HISTONES VIA MIRNA REGULATION OF PROTEIN TRANSLATION THAT ARE TYPES OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND PARTICIPATE IN DISEASE DEVELOPMENT. PERIODONTAL DISEASE (PD) IS ONE OF THE MOST COMMON ORAL DISEASES IN HUMANS THAT IS CHARACTERIZED BY LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION AND HAS BEEN SHOWN TO INCREASE THE RISK OF CVDS. RISK FACTORS INVOLVED IN PD AND CVD ARE DETERMINED BOTH GENETICALLY AND BEHAVIORALLY. PERIODONTAL DISEASES SUCH AS CHRONIC INFLAMMATION PROMOTE DNA METHYLATION. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS INVOLVED IN THE INITIATION AND PROGRESSION OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS PLAY AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN PLAQUE DEVELOPMENT AND VULNERABILITY. EPIGENETICS HAS OPENED A NEW WORLD TO UNDERSTAND AND MANAGE HUMAN DISEASES, INCLUDING CVDS AND PERIODONTAL DISEASES. GENETIC MEDICINE HAS STARTED A NEW ERA OF EPIGENETICS TO OVERCOME HUMAN DISEASES WITH VARIOUS NEW METHODOLOGY. EPIGENETIC PROFILING MAY AID IN BETTER DIAGNOSIS AND STRATIFICATION OF PATIENTS SHOWING POTENTIAL PREDISPOSED STATES FOR DISEASE. A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE EXACT REGULATORY MECHANISMS OF EPIGENETIC PATHWAYS DRIVING INFLAMMATION IS SLOWLY EMERGING AND WILL AID IN DEVELOPING NOVEL TOOLS FOR THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 2021 9 4043 30 MACROPHAGES IN CHRONIC LIVER FAILURE: DIVERSITY, PLASTICITY AND THERAPEUTIC TARGETING. CHRONIC LIVER INJURY RESULTS IN IMMUNE-DRIVEN PROGRESSIVE FIBROSIS, WITH RISK OF CIRRHOSIS DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACT ON MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. PERSISTENT LIVER CELL DAMAGE AND DEATH CAUSES IMMUNE CELL ACTIVATION AND INFLAMMATION. PATIENTS WITH ADVANCED CIRRHOSIS ADDITIONALLY EXPERIENCE PATHOLOGICAL BACTERIAL TRANSLOCATION, EXPOSURE TO MICROBIAL PRODUCTS AND CHRONIC ENGAGEMENT OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. BACTERIAL INFECTIONS HAVE A HIGH INCIDENCE IN CIRRHOSIS, WITH SPONTANEOUS BACTERIAL PERITONITIS BEING THE MOST COMMON, WHILE THE SUBSEQUENT SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION, ORGAN FAILURE AND IMMUNE DYSREGULATION INCREASE THE MORTALITY RISK. TISSUE-RESIDENT AND RECRUITED MACROPHAGES PLAY A CENTRAL PART IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF INFLAMMATION AND FIBROSIS PROGRESSION. IN THE LIVER, ADIPOSE TISSUE, PERITONEUM AND INTESTINES, DIVERSE MACROPHAGE POPULATIONS EXHIBIT GREAT PHENOTYPIC AND FUNCTIONAL PLASTICITY DETERMINED BY THEIR ONTOGENY, EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING AND LOCAL MICROENVIRONMENT. THESE CHANGES CAN, AT DIFFERENT TIMES, PROMOTE OR AMELIORATE DISEASE STATES AND THEREFORE REPRESENT POTENTIAL TARGETS FOR MACROPHAGE-DIRECTED THERAPIES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE DISCUSS THE EVIDENCE FOR MACROPHAGE PHENOTYPIC AND FUNCTIONAL ALTERATIONS IN TISSUE COMPARTMENTS DURING THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF CHRONIC LIVER FAILURE IN DIFFERENT AETIOLOGIES AND HIGHLIGHT THE POTENTIAL OF MACROPHAGE MODULATION AS A THERAPEUTIC STRATEGY FOR LIVER DISEASE. 2021 10 2333 32 EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF INFLAMMATION: THE METABOLOMICS CONNECTION. EPIGENETIC FACTORS ARE CONSIDERED THE REGULATOR OF COMPLEX MACHINERY BEHIND INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS AND SIGNIFICANTLY CONTRIBUTED TO THE EXPRESSION OF INFLAMMATION-ASSOCIATED GENES. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS MODULATE VARIATION IN THE EXPRESSION PATTERN OF TARGET GENES WITHOUT AFFECTING THE DNA SEQUENCE. THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF EPIGENETIC RESEARCH FOCUSED ON THEIR ROLE IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF VARIOUS INFLAMMATORY DISEASES THAT CAUSES MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WORLDWIDE. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES ARE CATEGORIZED AS ACUTE AND CHRONIC BASED ON THE DISEASE SEVERITY AND ARE REGULATED BY THE EXPRESSION PATTERN OF VARIOUS GENES. HENCE, UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS DURING INFLAMMATION PROGRESSION WILL CONTRIBUTE TO THE DISEASE OUTCOMES AND THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES. THIS REVIEW ALSO FOCUSES ON THE METABOLOMICS APPROACH ASSOCIATED WITH THE STUDY OF INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES AND METABOLIC REGULATION ARE HIGHLY INTEGRATED AND VARIOUS ADVANCED TECHNIQUES ARE ADOPTED TO STUDY THE METABOLIC SIGNATURE MOLECULES. HERE WE DISCUSS SEVERAL METABOLOMICS APPROACHES USED TO LINK INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES. WE PROPOSED THAT DECIPHERING THE MECHANISM BEHIND THE INFLAMMATION-METABOLISM LOOP MAY HAVE IMMENSE IMPORTANCE IN BIOMARKERS RESEARCH AND MAY ACT AS A PRINCIPAL COMPONENT IN DRUG DISCOVERY AS WELL AS THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS. 2022 11 1712 46 DYSFUNCTIONAL VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM AS A DRIVER OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS: EMERGING INSIGHTS INTO PATHOGENESIS AND TREATMENT. ATHEROSCLEROSIS, THE CHRONIC ACCUMULATION OF CHOLESTEROL-RICH PLAQUE WITHIN ARTERIES, IS ASSOCIATED WITH A BROAD SPECTRUM OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES INCLUDING MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, AORTIC ANEURYSM, PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE, AND STROKE. ATHEROSCLEROTIC CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE REMAINS A LEADING CAUSE OF MORTALITY IN HIGH-INCOME COUNTRIES AND RECENT YEARS HAVE WITNESSED A NOTABLE INCREASE IN PREVALENCE WITHIN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME REGIONS OF THE WORLD. CONSIDERING THIS PROMINENT AND EVOLVING GLOBAL BURDEN, THERE IS A NEED TO IDENTIFY THE CELLULAR MECHANISMS THAT UNDERLIE THE PATHOGENESIS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS TO DISCOVER NOVEL THERAPEUTIC TARGETS FOR PREVENTING OR MITIGATING ITS CLINICAL SEQUELAE. DESPITE DECADES OF RESEARCH, WE STILL DO NOT FULLY UNDERSTAND THE COMPLEX CELL-CELL INTERACTIONS THAT DRIVE ATHEROSCLEROSIS, BUT NEW INVESTIGATIVE APPROACHES ARE RAPIDLY SHEDDING LIGHT ON THESE ESSENTIAL MECHANISMS. THE VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM RESIDES AT THE INTERFACE OF SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION AND THE UNDERLYING VESSEL WALL AND PLAYS AN ESSENTIAL ROLE IN GOVERNING PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES DURING ATHEROGENESIS. IN THIS REVIEW, WE PRESENT EMERGING EVIDENCE THAT IMPLICATES THE ACTIVATED ENDOTHELIUM AS A DRIVER OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS BY DIRECTING SITE-SPECIFICITY OF PLAQUE FORMATION AND BY PROMOTING PLAQUE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH INTRACELLULAR PROCESSES, WHICH REGULATE ENDOTHELIAL CELL PROLIFERATION AND TURNOVER, METABOLISM, PERMEABILITY, AND PLASTICITY. MOREOVER, WE HIGHLIGHT NOVEL MECHANISMS OF INTERCELLULAR COMMUNICATION BY WHICH ENDOTHELIAL CELLS MODULATE THE ACTIVITY OF KEY VASCULAR CELL POPULATIONS INVOLVED IN ATHEROGENESIS, AND DISCUSS HOW ENDOTHELIAL CELLS CONTRIBUTE TO RESOLUTION BIOLOGY - A PROCESS THAT IS DYSREGULATED IN ADVANCED PLAQUES. FINALLY, WE DESCRIBE IMPORTANT FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR PRECLINICAL ATHEROSCLEROSIS RESEARCH, INCLUDING EPIGENETIC AND TARGETED THERAPIES, TO LIMIT THE PROGRESSION OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS IN AT-RISK OR AFFECTED PATIENTS. 2021 12 607 28 BEYOND GENETICS: EPIGENETIC CODE IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. EPIGENETICS REFERS TO A HERITABLE CHANGE IN THE PATTERN OF GENE EXPRESSION THAT IS MEDIATED BY A MECHANISM SPECIFICALLY NOT DUE TO ALTERATIONS IN THE PRIMARY NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE. WELL-KNOWN EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ENCOMPASS DNA METHYLATION, CHROMATIN REMODELING (HISTONE MODIFICATIONS), AND RNA INTERFERENCE. FUNCTIONALLY, EPIGENETICS PROVIDES AN EXTRA LAYER OF TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL AND PLAYS A CRUCIAL ROLE IN NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT, AS WELL AS IN PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. ABERRANT DNA METHYLATION IS IMPLICATED IN IMMUNE DYSFUNCTION, INFLAMMATION, AND INSULIN RESISTANCE. EPIGENETIC CHANGES MAY BE RESPONSIBLE FOR 'METABOLIC MEMORY' AND DEVELOPMENT OF MICRO- AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES. MICRORNAS ARE CRITICAL IN THE MAINTENANCE OF GLOMERULAR HOMEOSTASIS AND HENCE RNA INTERFERENCE MAY BE IMPORTANT IN THE PROGRESSION OF RENAL DISEASE. RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS ORCHESTRATE THE EPITHELIAL-MESENCHYMAL TRANSITION AND EVENTUALLY FIBROSIS OF THE RENAL TISSUE. OXIDATIVE STRESS, INFLAMMATION, HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA, AND UREMIC TOXINS COULD INDUCE EPIMUTATIONS IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH INFLAMMATION AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE IN PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE. REVERSIBLE NATURE OF THE EPIGENETIC CHANGES GIVES A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY TO HALT OR EVEN REVERSE THE DISEASE PROCESS THROUGH TARGETED THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES. 2011 13 5932 33 TARGETING EPIGENETIC REGULATORS FOR INFLAMMATION: MECHANISMS AND INTERVENTION THERAPY. EMERGING EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT RESOLUTION OF INFLAMMATION IS A CRITICAL AND DYNAMIC ENDOGENOUS PROCESS FOR HOST TISSUES DEFENDING AGAINST EXTERNAL INVASIVE PATHOGENS OR INTERNAL TISSUE INJURY. IT HAS LONG BEEN KNOWN THAT AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY DYSREGULATED IMMUNE RESPONSES, LEADING TO EXCESSIVE AND UNCONTROL TISSUE INFLAMMATION. THE DYSREGULATION OF EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION, POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS TO HISTONE PROTEINS, AND NONCODING RNA EXPRESSION HAS BEEN IMPLICATED IN A HOST OF INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IS CONSIDERED AS A CRITICAL TRIGGER OF EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS THAT IN TURN INTERCEDE INFLAMMATORY ACTIONS. THUS, UNDERSTANDING THE MOLECULAR MECHANISM THAT DICTATES THE OUTCOME OF TARGETING EPIGENETIC REGULATORS FOR INFLAMMATORY DISEASE IS REQUIRED FOR INFLAMMATION RESOLUTION. IN THIS ARTICLE, WE ELUCIDATE THE CRITICAL ROLE OF THE NUCLEAR FACTOR-KAPPAB SIGNALING PATHWAY, JAK/STAT SIGNALING PATHWAY, AND THE NLRP3 INFLAMMASOME IN CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASES. AND WE FORMULATE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFLAMMATION, CORONAVIRUS DISEASE 2019, AND HUMAN CANCERS. ADDITIONALLY, WE REVIEW THE MECHANISM OF EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS INVOLVED IN INFLAMMATION AND INNATE IMMUNE CELLS. ALL THAT MATTERS IS THAT WE PROPOSE AND DISCUSS THE REJUVENATION POTENTIAL OF INTERVENTIONS THAT TARGET EPIGENETIC REGULATORS AND REGULATORY MECHANISMS FOR CHRONIC INFLAMMATION-ASSOCIATED DISEASES TO IMPROVE THERAPEUTIC OUTCOMES. 2022 14 2491 28 EPIGENETICS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE IN DIABETES. TYPE 2 DIABETES HAS BECOME A MAJOR HEALTH ISSUE WORLDWIDE. CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA INDUCES A LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION THAT, ON TOP OF OTHER MECHANISMS, LEADS TO ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION. MOUNTING EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT DNA METHYLATION, POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS OF HISTONES, AND LONG NON-CODING RNAS PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE INITIATION, MAINTENANCE, AND PROGRESSION OF BOTH MACRO- AND MICRO-VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES. LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO HYPERGLYCEMIA INDUCES EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT COULD BECOME IRREVERSIBLE, A PHENOMENON KNOWN AS THE 'METABOLIC MEMORY.' WHETHER EPIGENETIC-BASED THERAPIES COULD BE USED TO SLOW OR LIMIT THE PROGRESSION OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE REMAINS UNCLEAR. WHILE NON-CODING RNAS ARE CURRENTLY INVESTIGATED AS POTENTIAL BIOMARKERS THAT PREDICT DIABETIC CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION, THEIR THERAPEUTIC ROLE IS ONLY HYPOTHETICAL. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HIGHLIGHT THE LATEST FINDINGS IN EXPERIMENTAL AND CLINICAL STUDIES RELEVANT TO EPIGENETICS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE IN DIABETES. 2015 15 4488 28 MONOCYTE AND HAEMATOPOIETIC PROGENITOR REPROGRAMMING AS COMMON MECHANISM UNDERLYING CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. A LARGE NUMBER OF CARDIOVASCULAR EVENTS ARE NOT PREVENTED BY CURRENT THERAPEUTIC REGIMENS. IN SEARCH FOR ADDITIONAL, INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES, IMMUNE CELLS HAVE BEEN RECOGNIZED AS KEY PLAYERS CONTRIBUTING TO ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE PROGRESSION AND DESTABILIZATION. PARTICULARLY THE ROLE OF INNATE IMMUNE CELLS IS OF MAJOR INTEREST, FOLLOWING THE RECENT PARADIGM SHIFT THAT INNATE IMMUNITY, LONG CONSIDERED TO BE INCAPABLE OF LEARNING, DOES EXHIBIT IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY MEDIATED VIA EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING. COMPELLING EVIDENCE SHOWS THAT ATHEROSCLEROTIC RISK FACTORS PROMOTE IMMUNE CELL MIGRATION BY PRE-ACTIVATION OF CIRCULATING INNATE IMMUNE CELLS. INNATE IMMUNE CELL ACTIVATION VIA METABOLIC AND EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING PERPETUATES A SYSTEMIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATORY STATE IN CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE (CVD) THAT IS ALSO COMMON IN OTHER CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS. THIS OPENS A NEW THERAPEUTIC AREA IN WHICH METABOLIC OR EPIGENETIC MODULATION OF INNATE IMMUNE CELLS MAY RESULT IN DECREASED SYSTEMIC CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, ALLEVIATING CVD, AND ITS CO-MORBIDITIES. 2018 16 1597 31 DNA METHYLATION REGULATED GENE EXPRESSION IN ORGAN FIBROSIS. DNA METHYLATION IS A MAJOR EPIGENETIC MECHANISM TO REGULATE GENE EXPRESSION. EPIGENETIC REGULATION, INCLUDING DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS AND RNA INTERFERENCE, RESULTS IN HERITABLE CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION INDEPENDENT OF ALTERATIONS IN DNA SEQUENCE. EPIGENETIC REGULATION OFTEN OCCURS IN RESPONSE TO AGING AND ENVIRONMENT STIMULI, INCLUDING EXPOSURES AND DIET. STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT DNA METHYLATION IS CRITICAL IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF FIBROSIS INVOLVING MULTIPLE ORGAN SYSTEMS, CONTRIBUTING TO SIGNIFICANT MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. ABERRANT DNA METHYLATION CAN SILENCE OR ACTIVATE GENE EXPRESSION PATTERNS THAT DRIVE THE FIBROSIS PROCESS. FIBROSIS IS A PATHOLOGICAL WOUND HEALING PROCESS IN RESPONSE TO CHRONIC INJURY. IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY EXCESSIVE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX PRODUCTION AND ACCUMULATION, WHICH EVENTUALLY AFFECTS ORGAN ARCHITECTURE AND RESULTS IN ORGAN FAILURE. FIBROSIS CAN AFFECT A WIDE RANGE OF ORGANS, INCLUDING THE HEART AND LUNGS, AND HAVE LIMITED THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS. DNA METHYLATION, LIKE OTHER EPIGENETIC PROCESS, IS REVERSIBLE, THEREFORE REGARDED AS ATTRACTIVE THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS. ALTHOUGH EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ARE HIGHLY INTERACTIVE AND OFTEN REINFORCING, THIS REVIEW DISCUSSES DNA METHYLATION-DEPENDENT MECHANISMS IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF ORGAN FIBROSIS, WITH FOCUS ON CARDIAC AND PULMONARY FIBROSIS. WE DISCUSS SPECIFIC PRO- AND ANTI-FIBROTIC GENES AND PATHWAYS REGULATED BY DNA METHYLATION IN ORGAN FIBROSIS; WE FURTHER HIGHLIGHT THE POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND SIDE-EFFECTS OF EPIGENETIC THERAPIES IN FIBROTIC DISORDERS. 2017 17 5660 37 SEX-SPECIFIC EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING IN RENAL FIBROSIS AND INFLAMMATION. THE GROWING PREVALENCE OF HYPERTENSION, HEART DISEASE, DIABETES, AND OBESITY ALONG WITH AN AGING POPULATION, IS LEADING TO HIGHER INCIDENCE OF RENAL DISEASES IN THE SOCIETY. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IS CHARACTERIZED MAINLY BY PERSISTENT INFLAMMATION, FIBROSIS, AND GRADUAL LOSS OF RENAL FUNCTION LEADING TO RENAL FAILURE. SEX IS A KNOWN CONTRIBUTOR TO THE DIFFERENCES IN INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF CKD. EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING IS AN ESSENTIAL REGULATOR OF RENAL PHYSIOLOGY AND IS CRITICALLY INVOLVED IN THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF RENAL INJURY AND FIBROSIS. EPIGENETIC SIGNALING INTEGRATES INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SIGNALS ONTO THE GENOME, AND VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL AND HORMONAL STIMULI, INCLUDING SEX HORMONES, WHICH REGULATE GENE EXPRESSION AND DOWNSTREAM CELLULAR RESPONSES. THE MOST EXTENSIVELY STUDIED EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS THAT PLAY A CRITICAL ROLE IN RENAL DAMAGE INCLUDE HISTONE MODIFICATIONS AND DNA METHYLATION. NOTABLY, THESE EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS ARE REVERSIBLE, MAKING THEM CANDIDATES FOR POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC TARGETS FOR THE TREATMENT OF RENAL DISEASES. HERE, WE WILL SUMMARIZE THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE ON SEX-DIFFERENCES IN EPIGENETIC MODULATION OF RENAL FIBROSIS AND INFLAMMATION AND HIGHLIGHT SOME POSSIBLE EPIGENETIC THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES FOR CKD TREATMENT. 2023 18 5931 33 TARGETING EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS TO REPROGRAMME MACROPHAGES IN NON-RESOLVING INFLAMMATION-DRIVEN ATHEROSCLEROSIS. EPIGENOMIC AND EPIGENETIC RESEARCH HAS BEEN PROVIDING SEVERAL NEW INSIGHTS INTO A VARIETY OF DISEASES CAUSED BY NON-RESOLVING INFLAMMATION, INCLUDING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. ATHEROSCLEROSIS (AS) HAS LONG BEEN RECOGNIZED AS A CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE OF THE ARTERIAL WALLS, CHARACTERIZED BY LOCAL PERSISTENT AND STEPWISE ACCELERATING INFLAMMATION WITHOUT RESOLUTION, ALSO KNOWN AS UNCONTROLLED INFLAMMATION. THE PATHOGENESIS OF AS IS DRIVEN PRIMARILY BY HIGHLY PLASTIC MACROPHAGES VIA THEIR POLARIZATION TO PRO- OR ANTI-INFLAMMATORY PHENOTYPES AS WELL AS OTHER NOVEL SUBTYPES RECENTLY IDENTIFIED BY SINGLE-CELL SEQUENCING. ALTHOUGH EMERGING EVIDENCE HAS INDICATED THE KEY ROLE OF THE EPIGENETIC MACHINERY IN THE REGULATION OF MACROPHAGE PLASTICITY, THE INVESTIGATION OF EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS AND MODIFIERS IN AS AND RELATED INFLAMMATION IS STILL IN ITS INFANCY. AN INCREASING NUMBER OF THE EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS (E.G. TET2, DNMT3A, HDAC3, HDAC9, JMJD3, KDM4A) HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED IN EPIGENETIC REMODELLING OF MACROPHAGES THROUGH DNA METHYLATION OR HISTONE MODIFICATIONS (E.G. METHYLATION, ACETYLATION, AND RECENTLY LACTYLATION) IN INFLAMMATION. THESE OR MANY UNEXPLORED MODIFIERS FUNCTION TO DETERMINE OR SWITCH THE DIRECTION OF MACROPHAGE POLARIZATION VIA TRANSCRIPTIONAL REPROGRAMMING OF GENE EXPRESSION AND INTRACELLULAR METABOLIC REWIRING UPON MICROENVIRONMENTAL CUES, THEREBY REPRESENTING A PROMISING TARGET FOR ANTI-INFLAMMATORY THERAPY IN AS. HERE, WE REVIEW UP-TO-DATE FINDINGS INVOLVING THE EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF MACROPHAGES TO SHED LIGHT ON THE MECHANISM OF UNCONTROLLED INFLAMMATION DURING AS ONSET AND PROGRESSION. WE ALSO DISCUSS CURRENT CHALLENGES FOR DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE AND SAFE ANTI-AS THERAPY THAT TARGETS THE EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS AND PROPOSE A POTENTIAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY STRATEGY THAT REPOLARIZES MACROPHAGES FROM PRO- TO ANTI-INFLAMMATORY PHENOTYPES. 2021 19 2195 34 EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN INFLAMMATION AND FIBROSIS IN RENAL PATHOLOGY. THE GROWING INCIDENCE OF OBESITY, HYPERTENSION, AND DIABETES, COUPLED WITH THE AGING OF THE POPULATION, IS INCREASING THE PREVALENCE OF RENAL DISEASES IN OUR SOCIETY. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) IS CHARACTERIZED BY PERSISTENT INFLAMMATION, FIBROSIS, AND LOSS OF RENAL FUNCTION LEADING TO END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE. NOWADAYS, CKD TREATMENT HAS LIMITED EFFECTIVENESS UNDERSCORING THE IMPORTANCE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATIVE THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS. RECENT STUDIES HAVE IDENTIFIED HOW EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS PARTICIPATE IN THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CKD AND HAVE EXPLAINED HOW THE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTS WITH THE RENAL CELL EPIGENOME TO CONTRIBUTE TO RENAL DAMAGE. EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS REGULATE CRITICAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN GENE REGULATION AND DOWNSTREAM CELLULAR RESPONSES. THE MOST RELEVANT EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS THAT PLAY A CRITICAL ROLE IN RENAL DAMAGE INCLUDE DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND CHANGES IN MIRNA LEVELS. IMPORTANTLY, THESE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS ARE REVERSIBLE AND, THEREFORE, A SOURCE OF POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC TARGETS. HERE, WE WILL EXPLAIN HOW EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MAY REGULATE ESSENTIAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN RENAL PATHOLOGY AND HIGHLIGHT SOME POSSIBLE EPIGENETIC THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES FOR CKD TREATMENT. 2018 20 4377 30 MITOCHONDRIAL AGING: FOCUS ON MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DAMAGE IN ATHEROSCLEROSIS - A MINI-REVIEW. ATHEROSCLEROSIS IS A COMPLEX DISEASE WHICH CAN BE DESCRIBED AS AN EXCESSIVE FIBROFATTY, PROLIFERATIVE, INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE TO DAMAGE TO THE ARTERY WALL INVOLVING SEVERAL CELL TYPES SUCH AS SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS, MONOCYTE-DERIVED MACROPHAGES, LYMPHOCYTES, DENDRITIC CELLS AND PLATELETS. ON THE OTHER HAND, ATHEROSCLEROSIS IS A TYPICAL AGE-RELATED DEGENERATIVE PATHOLOGY, WHICH IS CHARACTERIZED BY SIGNS OF CELL SENESCENCE IN THE ARTERIAL WALL INCLUDING REDUCED CELL PROLIFERATION, IRREVERSIBLE GROWTH ARREST AND APOPTOSIS, INCREASED DNA DAMAGE, THE PRESENCE OF EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS, SHORTENING OF TELOMERE LENGTH AND MITOCHONDRIAL DYSFUNCTION. THE MOST PROMINENT CHARACTERISTICS OF MITOCHONDRIAL AGING ARE THEIR STRUCTURAL ALTERATIONS AND MITOCHONDRIAL DNA DAMAGE. THE MECHANISMS OF MITOCHONDRIAL GENOME DAMAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC AGE-RELATED DISEASES SUCH AS ATHEROSCLEROSIS ARE NOT YET WELL UNDERSTOOD. THIS REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE LATEST FINDINGS FROM STUDIES OF THOSE MUTATIONS OF THE MITOCHONDRIAL GENOME WHICH MAY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND WHICH ARE, AT THE SAME TIME, ALSO MARKERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL AGING AND CELL SENESCENCE. 2015