1 1384 153 DIABETES AND KIDNEY DISEASE: EMPHASIS ON TREATMENT WITH SGLT-2 INHIBITORS AND GLP-1 RECEPTOR AGONISTS. KIDNEY DISEASE IS A FREQUENT MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATION OF BOTH TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. HISTORIC TRIALS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT A TIGHT GLYCAEMIC CONTROL IS THE MOST POWERFUL APPROACH TO DECREASE THE CHANCES OF DEVELOPING DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. HOWEVER, HAVING AN HBA1C < 7% DOES NOT COMPLETELY SUPPRESS THE RISK OF KIDNEY DISEASE. THE OBSERVED RESIDUAL RISK IS LIKELY ASCRIBABLE TO TWO PHENOMENA: 1- THE PRESENCE OF RISK FACTORS AND ALTERATIONS ADDITIVE TO AND INDEPENDENT OF GLYCAEMIA, AND 2- THE ACTIVATION OF LONG-LASTING IMBALANCES BY PERIODS OF EXPOSURE TO UNCONTROLLED GLYCEMIA, A PHENOMENON REFERRED TO AS METABOLIC MEMORY OR LEGACY EFFECT. LONG-LASTING OXIDATIVE STRESS, EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, CELLULAR SENESCENCE, AND THE RESULTING CHRONIC LOW-GRADE INFLAMMATION ARE ALL CANDIDATE MECHANISMS EXPLAINING THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEPHROPATHY DESPITE PROPER CONTROL OF RISK FACTORS. RECENTLY, TWO CLASSES OF DRUGS, I.E. GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE (GLP) 1 RECEPTOR AGONISTS (RA) AND SODIUM-GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER 2 INHIBITORS (SGLT-I) HAVE CHANGED THIS SCENARIO. INDEED, CARDIOVASCULAR OUTCOME AND OTHER TRIALS HAVE CLEARLY SHOWN A RENOPROTECTIVE EFFECT FOR THESE DRUGS, WELL-BEYOND THEIR GLUCOSE-LOWERING PROPERTIES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE: 1- SELECTED KEY TRIALS AND MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE AND 2- THE RESULTS RELATIVE TO RENAL ENDPOINTS IN CLINICAL TRIALS OF GLP-1 RA AND SGLT-2I. THEN, WE BRIEFLY DISCUSS SOME OF THE HYPOTHESES POSITED TO EXPLAIN THE MARKED RENOPROTECTIVE PROPERTIES OF THESE TWO CLASSES, EVIDENCING THE STILL EXISTING GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE AND PROPOSING FUTURE DIRECTIONS TO FURTHER IMPLEMENT THE USE OF THESE POWERFUL, DISEASE-MODIFYING DRUGS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
2 2613  43 EPIGENETICS: DECIPHERING ITS ROLE IN DIABETES AND ITS CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS. 1. INCREASING EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETIC FACTORS MIGHT REGULATE THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY BETWEEN GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT, AND AFFECT HUMAN DISEASES, SUCH AS DIABETES AND ITS COMPLICATIONS. 2. CLINICAL TRIALS HAVE UNDERSCORED THE LONG LASTING BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF STRICT GLYCAEMIC CONTROL FOR REDUCING THE PROGRESSION OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS. THEY HAVE ALSO SHOWN THAT DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS, SUCH AS DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY, A CHRONIC KIDNEY DISORDER, CAN CONTINUE EVEN AFTER BLOOD GLUCOSE NORMALIZATION, SUGGESTING A METABOLIC MEMORY OF THE PRIOR GLYCAEMIC STATE. 3. DYSREGULATION OF EPIGENETIC POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATIONS OF HISTONES IN CHROMATIN, INCLUDING HISTONE LYSINE METHYLATION, HAS BEEN IMPLICATED IN ABERRANT GENE REGULATION ASSOCIATED WITH THE PATHOLOGY OF DIABETES AND ITS COMPLICATIONS. GENOME-WIDE STUDIES HAVE SHOWN CELL-TYPE SPECIFIC CHANGES IN HISTONE METHYLATION PATTERNS UNDER DIABETIC CONDITIONS. IN ADDITION, STUDIES IN VASCULAR CELLS HAVE SHOWN LONG LASTING CHANGES IN EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AT KEY INFLAMMATORY GENE PROMOTERS AFTER PRIOR EXPOSURE TO DIABETIC CONDITIONS, SUGGESTING A POSSIBLE MECHANISM FOR METABOLIC MEMORY. 4. RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN ROLES FOR HISTONE METHYLATION, DNA METHYLATION, AS WELL AS MICRORNA IN DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. WHETHER THESE EPIGENETIC FACTORS PLAY A ROLE IN METABOLIC MEMORY OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE IS LESS WELL UNDERSTOOD. 5. THE INCIDENCE OF DIABETES IS GROWING RAPIDLY, AS ALSO THE COST OF TREATING THE RESULTING COMPLICATIONS. A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF METABOLIC MEMORY AND THE POTENTIAL INVOLVEMENT OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN THIS PHENOMENON COULD ENABLE THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW THERAPEUTIC TARGETS FOR THE TREATMENT AND/OR PREVENTION OF SUSTAINED DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
3 6446  50 THERAPEUTIC INSIGHTS IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE PROGRESSION. CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED AS A LEADING PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM WORLDWIDE. THROUGH ITS EFFECT ON CARDIOVASCULAR RISK AND END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE, CKD DIRECTLY AFFECTS THE GLOBAL BURDEN OF MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. CLASSICAL OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF CKD INCLUDES BLOOD PRESSURE CONTROL, TREATMENT OF ALBUMINURIA WITH ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS OR ANGIOTENSIN II RECEPTOR BLOCKERS, AVOIDANCE OF POTENTIAL NEPHROTOXINS AND OBESITY, DRUG DOSING ADJUSTMENTS, AND CARDIOVASCULAR RISK REDUCTION. DIABETES MIGHT ACCOUNT FOR MORE THAN HALF OF CKD BURDEN, AND OBESITY IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PROMPTED FACTOR FOR THIS DISEASE. NEW ANTIHYPERGLYCEMIC DRUGS, SUCH AS SODIUM-GLUCOSE-COTRANSPORTER 2 INHIBITORS HAVE SHOWN TO SLOW THE DECLINE OF GFR, BRINGING ADDITIONAL BENEFIT IN WEIGHT REDUCTION, CARDIOVASCULAR, AND OTHER KIDNEY OUTCOMES. ON THE OTHER HAND, A NEW GENERATION OF NON-STEROIDAL MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST HAS RECENTLY BEEN DEVELOPED TO OBTAIN A SELECTIVE RECEPTOR INHIBITION REDUCING SIDE EFFECTS LIKE HYPERKALEMIA AND THEREBY MAKING THE DRUGS SUITABLE FOR ADMINISTRATION TO CKD PATIENTS. MOREOVER, TWO NEW POTASSIUM-LOWERING THERAPIES HAVE SHOWN TO IMPROVE TOLERANCE, ALLOWING FOR HIGHER DOSAGE OF RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM INHIBITORS AND THEREFORE ENHANCING THEIR NEPHROPROTECTIVE EFFECT. REGARDLESS OF ITS CAUSE, CKD IS CHARACTERIZED BY REDUCED RENAL REGENERATION CAPACITY, MICROVASCULAR DAMAGE, OXIDATIVE STRESS AND INFLAMMATION, RESULTING IN FIBROSIS AND PROGRESSIVE, AND IRREVERSIBLE NEPHRON LOSS. THEREFORE, A HOLISTIC APPROACH SHOULD BE TAKEN TARGETING THE DIVERSE PROCESSES AND BIOLOGICAL CONTEXTS THAT ARE ASSOCIATED WITH CKD PROGRESSION. TO DATE, THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS WHEN TUBULOINTERSTITIAL FIBROSIS IS ALREADY ESTABLISHED HAVE PROVED TO BE INSUFFICIENT, THUS RESEARCH EFFORT SHOULD FOCUS ON UNRAVELING EARLY DISEASE MECHANISMS. AN ARRAY OF NOVEL THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES TARGETING EPIGENETIC REGULATORS ARE NOW UNDERGOING PHASE II OR PHASE III TRIALS AND MIGHT PROVIDE A SIMULTANEOUS REGULATORY ACTIVITY THAT COORDINATELY REGULATE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF CKD PROGRESSION.	2021	
                                                                                         
4 4193  44 METABOLIC MEMORY AND DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY: BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS. NEPHROPATHY IS ONE OF THE MOST FREQUENT COMPLICATIONS OF CHRONIC DIABETES. THE MAIN REASON FOR NEPHROPATHY DESPITE BEING HYPERGLYCEMIA, BUT IT PROGRESSES EVEN AFTER GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN DIABETIC PATIENTS. THE EFFECTS OF PRIOR EXPOSURE TO HIGH BLOOD GLUCOSE CONDITIONS DEPEND UPON THE SEVERITY AND DURATION OF THIS EXPOSURE, INDICATING A "METABOLIC MEMORY" PHENOMENON. HYPERGLYCEMIA NOT ONLY INCREASES OXIDATIVE STRESS BUT IS ALSO ALLEGED TO START SEVERAL BIOCHEMICAL ANOMALIES AND ALTER GENE EXPRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS. HIGH GLUCOSE LEVELS INDUCE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS THAT ALTER GENE EXPRESSION WITHOUT CHANGING DNA SEQUENCES. THESE EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS HAVE SHOWN TO BE REVERSIBLE AND HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO CEASE ADVERSE EFFECTS IF GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS ACHIEVED FROM INITIATION OF DIABETES. HOWEVER, IF GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL IS NOT ACHIEVED FOR MONTHS, THESE MODIFICATIONS STAND FIRM TO REVERSALS. THERAPIES AND DRUGS HAVE BEEN IN USE TO PREVENT EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS AND OXIDATIVE STRESS, WHICH ALSO HELPED IN AMELIORATING DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. BUT THESE SYNTHETIC DRUGS ARE LOADED WITH SIDE EFFECTS LIKE INCREASED BODY WEIGHT, KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION ETC. SO PHYTOCHEMICALS ARE EMERGING AS ALTERNATIVES AND MANY OF THEM HAVE ALREADY BEEN USED TO TREAT NEPHROPATHY. BUT STILL, THERE IS RIGOROUS NEED TO EVALUATE PHYTOCHEMICALS WHICH CAN REGULATE EPIGENETIC EVENTS AND HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO DECELERATE THE FURTHER PROGRESSION OF THESE LIFE-THREATENING DISEASES. IN THIS REVIEW ARTICLE WE DISCUSS THE POTENTIAL EPIGENETIC MODIFIERS FROM PLANTS THAT CAN ERASE METABOLIC MEMORY AND CAN THUS BE PROTECTIVE AGAINST DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
5 3156  39 GLYCEMIC MEMORIES AND THE EPIGENETIC COMPONENT OF DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. A STRONG CASE FOR THE DEREGULATION OF EPIGENETIC CHROMATIN MODIFICATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF VARIOUS CHRONIC COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES HAS EMERGED FROM RECENT EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS. CLINICAL TRIALS OF TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES PATIENTS HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY AND INTENSIVE TREATMENT AND THE PROLONGED DAMAGE OF HYPERGLYCEMIA ON ORGANS SUCH AS THE KIDNEY. THE FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE REGULATION OF CHROMATIN ARCHITECTURE AND PERSISTENT GENE EXPRESSION CHANGES CONFERRED BY PRIOR HYPERGLYCEMIA REPRESENTS AN IMPORTANT AVENUE OF INVESTIGATION FOR EXPLAINING DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY. WHILE SEVERAL STUDIES IMPLICATE EPIGENETIC CHANGES AT THE CHROMATIN TEMPLATE IN THE DEREGULATED GENE EXPRESSION ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY, THE MOLECULAR DETERMINANTS OF METABOLIC MEMORY IN RENAL CELLS REMAIN POORLY UNDERSTOOD. THERE IS NOW STRONG EVIDENCE FROM EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND CELL CULTURE OF PERSISTENT GLUCOSE-DRIVEN CHANGES IN VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GENE EXPRESSION THAT MAY ALSO HAVE RELEVANCE FOR THE MICROVASCULATURE OF THE KIDNEY. EXPLORATION OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THE HYPERGLYCEMIC CUE MEDIATING PERSISTENT TRANSCRIPTIONAL CHANGES IN RENAL CELLS HOLDS NOVEL THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL FOR DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
6  465  51 ARE TARGETED THERAPIES FOR DIABETIC CARDIOMYOPATHY ON THE HORIZON? DIABETES INCREASES THE RISK OF HEART FAILURE APPROXIMATELY 2.5-FOLD, INDEPENDENT OF CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE AND OTHER COMORBIDITIES. THIS PROCESS, TERMED DIABETIC CARDIOMYOPATHY, IS CHARACTERIZED BY INITIAL IMPAIRMENT OF LEFT VENTRICULAR (LV) RELAXATION FOLLOWED BY LV CONTRACTILE DYSFUNCTION. POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION REVEALS THAT HUMAN DIASTOLIC DYSFUNCTION IS CLOSELY ASSOCIATED WITH LV DAMAGE, INCLUDING CARDIOMYOCYTE HYPERTROPHY, APOPTOSIS AND FIBROSIS, WITH IMPAIRED CORONARY MICROVASCULAR PERFUSION. THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERPINNING THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DIABETIC CARDIOMYOPATHY REMAIN POORLY UNDERSTOOD, ALTHOUGH MULTIPLE FACTORS INCLUDING ALTERED LIPID METABOLISM, MITOCHONDRIAL DYSFUNCTION, OXIDATIVE STRESS, ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) STRESS, INFLAMMATION, AS WELL AS EPIGENETIC CHANGES, ARE IMPLICATED. DESPITE A RECENT RISE IN RESEARCH INTERROGATING THESE MECHANISMS AND AN INCREASED UNDERSTANDING OF THE CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF DIABETIC CARDIOMYOPATHY, THERE REMAINS A LACK OF SPECIFIC TREATMENT STRATEGIES. HOW THE CHRONIC METABOLIC DISTURBANCES OBSERVED IN DIABETES LEAD TO STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES REMAINS A PERTINENT QUESTION, AND IT IS HOPED THAT RECENT ADVANCES, PARTICULARLY IN THE AREA OF EPIGENETICS, AMONG OTHERS, MAY PROVIDE SOME ANSWERS. THIS REVIEW HENCE EXPLORES THE TEMPORAL ONSET OF THE PATHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF DIABETIC CARDIOMYOPATHY, AND THEIR RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION TO THE RESULTANT DISEASE PHENOTYPE, AS WELL AS BOTH CURRENT AND POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS. THE EMERGENCE OF GLUCOSE-OPTIMIZING AGENTS, NAMELY GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 (GLP-1) AGONISTS AND SODIUM/GLUCOSE CO-TRANSPORTER (SGLT)2 INHIBITORS THAT CONFER BENEFITS ON CARDIOVASCULAR OUTCOMES, TOGETHER WITH NOVEL EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES, HIGHLIGHT A NEW AND EXCITING ERA IN DIABETES RESEARCH, WHICH IS LIKELY TO RESULT IN MAJOR CLINICAL IMPACT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
7 2163  37 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN DIABETIC VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. THERE HAS BEEN A RAPID INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF DIABETES AS WELL THE ASSOCIATED VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. BOTH GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN THESE PATHOLOGIES. INCREASING EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETIC FACTORS PLAY A KEY ROLE IN THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY BETWEEN GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT. ACTIONS OF MAJOR PATHOLOGICAL MEDIATORS OF DIABETES AND ITS COMPLICATIONS SUCH AS HYPERGLYCAEMIA, OXIDANT STRESS, AND INFLAMMATORY FACTORS CAN LEAD TO DYSREGULATED EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS THAT AFFECT CHROMATIN STRUCTURE AND GENE EXPRESSION. FURTHERMORE, PERSISTENCE OF THIS ALTERED STATE OF THE EPIGENOME MAY BE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM CONTRIBUTING TO A 'METABOLIC MEMORY' THAT RESULTS IN CHRONIC INFLAMMATION AND VASCULAR DYSFUNCTION IN DIABETES EVEN AFTER ACHIEVING GLYCAEMIC CONTROL. FURTHER EXAMINATION OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS BY ALSO TAKING ADVANTAGE OF RECENTLY DEVELOPED NEXT-GENERATION SEQUENCING TECHNOLOGIES CAN PROVIDE NOVEL INSIGHTS INTO THE PATHOLOGY OF DIABETES AND ITS COMPLICATIONS AND LEAD TO THE DISCOVERY OF MUCH NEEDED NEW DRUG TARGETS FOR THESE DISEASES. IN THIS REVIEW, WE HIGHLIGHT THE ROLE OF EPIGENETICS IN DIABETES AND ITS VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS, AND RECENT TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES THAT HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY ACCELERATED THE FIELD.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
8 4195  41 METABOLIC MEMORY: MECHANISMS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR DIABETIC RETINOPATHY. CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA OF DIABETES LEADS TO MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS THAT SEVERELY IMPACT QUALITY OF LIFE. DIABETIC RETINOPATHY (DR) MAY BE THE MOST COMMON OF THESE AND IS A LEADING CAUSE OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT AND BLINDNESS AMONG WORKING AGE ADULTS IN DEVELOPED NATIONS. MANY LARGE-SCALE TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES CLINICAL TRIALS HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT EARLY INTENSIVE GLYCEMIC CONTROL CAN REDUCE THE INCIDENCE AND PROGRESSION OF MICRO AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. ON THE OTHER HAND, EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PROSPECTIVE DATA HAVE REVEALED THAT THE STRESSORS OF DIABETIC VASCULATURE PERSIST BEYOND THE POINT WHEN GLYCEMIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ACHIEVED. THESE KINDS OF PERSISTENT ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HYPERGLYCEMIA ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF COMPLICATIONS HAS BEEN DEFINED AS "METABOLIC MEMORY", AND OXIDATIVE STRESS, ADVANCED GLYCATION END PRODUCTS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED IN THE PROCESS. RECENT STUDIES HAVE INDICATED THAT SUCH "HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY" MAY ALSO INFLUENCE DR, SUGGESTING THAT MANIPULATION OF HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY MAY PROVE A BENEFICIAL APPROACH TO PREVENTION AND TREATMENT. THIS REVIEW SUMMARIZES THE EVIDENCE FROM DR-RELATED CLINICAL TRIALS AND MECHANISTIC STUDIES TO INVESTIGATE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF METABOLIC MEMORY IN DR AND UNDERSTAND ITS POTENTIAL AS A TARGET OF MOLECULAR THERAPEUTICS AIMED AT REVERSING HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY.	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
9 3748  41 INSIGHTS INTO THE ROLE OF DNA METHYLATION AND PROTEIN MISFOLDING IN DIABETES MELLITUS. BACKGROUND: DIABETES MELLITUS IS A METABOLIC DISORDER THAT IS CHARACTERIZED BY IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE RESULTING FROM DEFECTS IN INSULIN SECRETION, INSULIN ACTION, OR BOTH. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS, WHICH ARE DEFINED AS INHERITED CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION THAT OCCUR WITHOUT CHANGES IN GENE SEQUENCE, ARE INVOLVED IN THE ETIOLOGY OF DIABETES. METHODS: IN THIS REVIEW, WE FOCUSED ON THE ROLE OF DNA METHYLATION AND PROTEIN MISFOLDING AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOTH TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS. RESULTS: CHANGES IN DNA METHYLATION IN PARTICULAR ARE HIGHLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETES. PROTEIN FUNCTION IS DEPENDENT ON THEIR PROPER FOLDING IN THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. DEFECTIVE PROTEIN FOLDING AND CONSEQUENTLY THEIR FUNCTIONS HAVE ALSO BEEN REPORTED TO PLAY A ROLE. EARLY TREATMENT OF DIABETES HAS PROVEN TO BE OF GREAT BENEFIT, AS EVEN TRANSIENT HYPERGLYCEMIA MAY LEAD TO PATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND COMPLICATIONS LATER ON. THIS HAS BEEN EXPLAINED BY THE THEORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF A METABOLIC MEMORY IN DIABETES. THE BASIS FOR THIS METABOLIC MEMORY WAS ATTRIBUTED TO OXIDATIVE STRESS, CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, NON-ENZYMATIC GLYCATION OF PROTEINS AND IMPORTANTLY, EPIGENETIC CHANGES. THIS HIGHLIGHTS THE IMPORTANCE OF LINKING NEW THERAPEUTICS TARGETING EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS WITH TRADITIONAL ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS. CONCLUSION: ALTHOUGH NEW DATA IS EVOLVING ON THE RELATION BETWEEN DNA METHYLATION, PROTEIN MISFOLDING, AND THE ETIOLOGY OF DIABETES, MORE STUDIES ARE REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPING NEW RELEVANT DIAGNOSTICS AND THERAPEUTICS.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
10 2190  42 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. THE INCIDENCE OF DIABETES AND RELATED COMPLICATIONS LIKE NEPHROPATHY IS GROWING RAPIDLY AND HAS BECOME A MAJOR HEALTH CARE ISSUE. CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND NUTRITIONAL HABITS HAVE BEEN IMPLICATED AS MAJOR PLAYERS. FURTHERMORE, IT IS BECOMING INCREASINGLY CLEAR THAT EPIGENETIC FACTORS MAY MODULATE THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT. WHILE DIABETES IN ITSELF IS TREATABLE TO A LARGE EXTENT, IT IS STILL ASSOCIATED WITH SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED RISK FOR COMPLICATIONS INCLUDING CHRONIC KIDNEY AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. CURRENT TREATMENTS HAVE ADDED PREVENTATIVE APPROACHES SO AS TO AVOID FUTURE DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS. UNFORTUNATELY, DIABETIC PATIENTS ARE OFTEN PLAGUED WITH THE CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS COMPLICATIONS EVEN AFTER ACHIEVING GLUCOSE CONTROL. THIS HAS BEEN SUGGESTED TO BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO A MYSTERIOUS PHENOMENON TERMED 'METABOLIC MEMORY' OF THE PRIOR GLYCEMIC STATE. RECENT STUDIES HAVE SUGGESTED THAT EPIGENETIC CHANGES TO CHROMATIN CAN AFFECT GENE EXPRESSION IN RESPONSE TO VARIOUS STIMULI, AND CHANGES IN KEY BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS AND EPIGENETIC HISTONE AND DNA METHYLATION PATTERNS IN CHROMATIN HAVE BEEN OBSERVED IN A DIABETIC MILIEU. THESE ACCUMULATING DATA SUGGEST THAT METABOLIC OR HYPERGLYCEMIC MEMORY MAY BE DUE TO EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN SPECIFIC TARGET TISSUES ALTERING GENE EXPRESSION WITHOUT CHANGING THE GENETIC CODE ITSELF. WHILE THE GENETICS OF DIABETES HAS LONG BEEN THE FOCUS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, MUCH LESS IS KNOWN ABOUT THE ROLE OF EPIGENETICS AND THE RELATED MOLECULAR PATHWAYS THAT MIGHT AFFECT THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETES AND THE ASSOCIATED COMPLICATIONS. FURTHER STUDIES OF EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ARE THEREFORE TIMELY AND COULD PROVIDE VALUABLE NEW INSIGHTS INTO THE PATHOLOGY OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS AND ALSO UNCOVER MUCH NEEDED NEW THERAPEUTIC TARGETS.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
11 3435  48 HYPERGLYCEMIA AND VASCULAR METABOLIC MEMORY: TRUTH OR FICTION? PREVENTION OF LONG-TERM COMPLICATIONS REMAINS THE MAIN CHALLENGE IN THE TREATMENT OF DIABETES. A STRONG RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLUCOSE CONTROL AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLICATIONS IS APPARENT IN ALL EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES. YET, INTERVENTION TRIALS HAVE YIELDED QUESTIONABLE RESULTS, PARTICULARLY WHEN INTENSIVE TREATMENT WAS INTRODUCED IN PATIENTS WITH LONG-STANDING DIABETES. IT HAS BEEN POSTULATED THAT IN THESE SUBJECTS, PRIOR EXPOSURE TO CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA MAY HAVE GENERATED A NEGATIVE "METABOLIC MEMORY," PREVENTING FULL EXERTION OF THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF ANY SUBSEQUENT IMPROVEMENT OF GLUCOSE CONTROL. THIS PHENOMENON HAS BEEN REPLICATED IN ANIMAL MODELS AND IT RECOGNIZES A MOLECULAR BASIS IN THE ROLE OF OXIDATIVE STRESS, ADVANCED GLYCATION PROCESSES, AND EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ACCOUNTING FOR SELF-PERPETUATING MODIFICATIONS OF GENE EXPRESSION. CONVERSELY, EARLY INTERVENTION IN BOTH TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES HAS PROVEN THAT GOOD GLYCEMIC CONTROL REDUCES THE RISK OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF COMPLICATIONS WITH A BENEFICIAL EFFECT THAT EXTENDS WELL BEYOND THE DURATION OF NEAR-NORMOGLYCEMIA. THIS HAS BROUGHT UP THE CONCEPT OF "METABOLIC LEGACY," AN ADVANTAGE HANDED DOWN BY EARLY AND EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF TREATMENTS DESIGNED TO REDUCE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS AS SAFELY AS POSSIBLE ALONG WITH MULTIFACTORIAL INTERVENTION OF ALL CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS. THE EVIDENCE, NATURE, AND CLINICAL IMPLICATION OF THESE CONCEPTS ARE REVIEWED.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
12 4971  38 PATHOPHYSIOLOGIC MECHANISMS IN DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE: A FOCUS ON CURRENT AND FUTURE THERAPEUTIC TARGETS. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE AROUND THE GLOBE AND IS ONE OF THE MAIN COMPLICATIONS IN PATIENTS WITH TYPE 1 AND 2 DIABETES. THE STANDARD TREATMENT FOR DKD IS DRUGS CONTROLLING HYPERGLYCEMIA AND HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE. RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM BLOCKADE AND SODIUM GLUCOSE COTRANSPORTER 2 (SGLT2) INHIBITION HAVE YIELDED PROMISING RESULTS IN DKD, BUT MANY DIABETIC PATIENTS ON SUCH TREATMENTS NEVERTHELESS CONTINUE TO DEVELOP DKD, LEADING TO KIDNEY FAILURE AND CARDIOVASCULAR COMORBIDITIES. NEW THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS ARE URGENTLY REQUIRED. WE REVIEW HERE THE PROMISING THERAPEUTIC AVENUES BASED ON INSIGHTS INTO THE MECHANISMS OF DKD THAT HAVE RECENTLY EMERGED, INCLUDING MINERALOCORTICOID RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS, SGLT2 INHIBITORS, GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 RECEPTOR AGONIST, ENDOTHELIN RECEPTOR A INHIBITION, ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, AUTOPHAGY ACTIVATORS AND EPIGENETIC REMODELLING. THE INVOLVEMENT OF SEVERAL MOLECULAR MECHANISMS IN DKD PATHOGENESIS, TOGETHER WITH THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC VARIABILITY OF THIS CONDITION, MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO TARGET THIS HETEROGENEOUS PATIENT POPULATION WITH A SINGLE DRUG. PERSONALIZED MEDICINE, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE GENETIC AND MECHANISTIC VARIABILITY, MAY THEREFORE IMPROVE RENAL AND CARDIOVASCULAR PROTECTION IN DIABETIC PATIENTS WITH DKD.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
13 6341  32 THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS IN LATE COMPLICATIONS IN TYPE 1 DIABETES. TYPE 1 DIABETES IS A CHRONIC AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE IN WHICH THE DESTRUCTION OF PANCREATIC BETA CELLS LEADS TO HYPERGLYCEMIA. THE PREVENTION OF HYPERGLYCEMIA IS VERY IMPORTANT TO AVOID OR AT LEAST POSTPONE THE DEVELOPMENT OF MICRO- AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS, ALSO KNOWN AS LATE COMPLICATIONS. THESE INCLUDE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE, DIABETIC NEUROPATHY, AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES. THE IMPACT OF LONG-TERM HYPERGLYCEMIA HAS BEEN SHOWN TO PERSIST LONG AFTER THE NORMALIZATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS, A PHENOMENON KNOWN AS METABOLIC MEMORY. IT IS BELIEVED THAT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, HISTONE MODIFICATIONS, AND MICRORNAS, PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN METABOLIC MEMORY. THE AIM OF THIS REVIEW IS TO ADDRESS THE IMPACT OF LONG-TERM HYPERGLYCEMIA ON EPIGENETIC MARKS IN LATE COMPLICATIONS OF TYPE 1 DIABETES.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
14 2028  32 EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN DIABETES. DIABETES IS A MULTIFACTORIAL DISEASE WITH NUMEROUS PATHWAYS INFLUENCING ITS PROGRESSION AND RECENT OBSERVATIONS SUGGEST THAT THE COMPLEXITY OF THE DISEASE CANNOT BE ENTIRELY ACCOUNTED FOR BY GENETIC PREDISPOSITION. A COMPELLING ARGUMENT FOR AN EPIGENETIC COMPONENT IS RAPIDLY EMERGING. EPIGENETIC PROCESSES AT THE CHROMATIN TEMPLATE SIGNIFICANTLY SENSITIZE TRANSCRIPTIONAL AND PHENOTYPIC OUTCOMES TO ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNALING INFORMATION INCLUDING METABOLIC STATE, NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND HISTORY. EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IMPACT GENE EXPRESSION THAT COULD PREDISPOSE INDIVIDUALS TO THE DIABETIC PHENOTYPE DURING INTRAUTERINE AND EARLY POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT, AS WELL AS THROUGHOUT ADULT LIFE. FURTHERMORE, EPIGENETIC CHANGES COULD ACCOUNT FOR THE ACCELERATED RATES OF CHRONIC AND PERSISTENT MICROVASCULAR AND MACROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH DIABETES. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL STUDIES IDENTIFIED POOR GLYCEMIC CONTROL AS A MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS AND HIGHLIGHT THE REQUIREMENT FOR EARLY INTERVENTION. EARLY EXPOSURE TO HYPERGLYCEMIA CAN DRIVE THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLICATIONS THAT MANIFEST LATE IN THE PROGRESSION OF THE DISEASE AND PERSIST DESPITE IMPROVED GLYCEMIC CONTROL, INDICATING A MEMORY OF THE METABOLIC INSULT. UNDERSTANDING THE MOLECULAR EVENTS THAT UNDERLIE THESE TRANSCRIPTIONAL CHANGES WILL SIGNIFICANTLY CONTRIBUTE TO NOVEL THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS TO PREVENT, REVERSE OR RETARD THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF THE DIABETIC MILIEU.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
15 5997  33 THE "METABOLIC MEMORY" THEORY AND THE EARLY TREATMENT OF HYPERGLYCEMIA IN PREVENTION OF DIABETIC COMPLICATIONS. SEVERAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND PROSPECTIVE STUDIES SUGGEST THAT AN EARLY INTENSIVE CONTROL OF HYPERGLYCAEMIA IS ABLE TO DECREASE THE RISK OF DIABETIC MICRO- AND MACRO-VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS. A GROWING BODY OF EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THE CONCEPT THAT THE RISK FOR DIABETES COMPLICATIONS MAY BE LINKED TO OXIDATIVE STRESS, NON-ENZYMATIC GLYCATION OF PROTEINS, EPIGENETIC CHANGES, AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, LAYING THE FOUNDATION FOR THE "METABOLIC MEMORY" THEORY. FROM A CLINICAL POINT OF VIEW, THIS THEORY SUPPORTS THE NEED FOR A VERY EARLY AGGRESSIVE TREATMENT, WITH THE GOAL OF NORMALIZING METABOLIC CONTROL AS SOON AS POSSIBLE. IT MAY ALSO PROVE BENEFICIAL TO INTRODUCE THERAPEUTIC AGENTS THAT ARE ABLE TO REDUCE REACTIVE SPECIES AND GLYCATION, IN ADDITION TO PRESENTING BETTER CONTROL OF GLUCOSE LEVELS IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES, IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE LONG-TERM DIABETES COMPLICATIONS. IN THIS REVIEW, WE EVALUATE THE EFFECT OF GLUCOSE INTAKE AND METABOLISM IN THE LIGHT OF THIS THEORY.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
16 6067  43 THE DIABETES MELLITUS-ATHEROSCLEROSIS CONNECTION: THE ROLE OF LIPID AND GLUCOSE METABOLISM AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATION. DIABETES MELLITUS COMPRISES A GROUP OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM DISORDERS THAT SHARE A COMMON MAIN FEATURE OF CHRONIC HYPERGLYCEMIA THAT RESULTS FROM DEFECTS OF INSULIN SECRETION, INSULIN ACTION, OR BOTH. INSULIN IS AN IMPORTANT ANABOLIC HORMONE, AND ITS DEFICIENCY LEADS TO VARIOUS METABOLIC ABNORMALITIES IN PROTEINS, LIPIDS, AND CARBOHYDRATES. ATHEROSCLEROSIS DEVELOPS AS A RESULT OF A MULTISTEP PROCESS ULTIMATELY LEADING TO CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY. ALTERATION OF LIPID METABOLISM IS A RISK FACTOR AND CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS. POSSIBLE LINKS BETWEEN THE TWO CHRONIC DISORDERS DEPENDING ON ALTERED METABOLIC PATHWAYS HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED IN NUMEROUS STUDIES. IT WAS SHOWN THAT BOTH TYPES OF DIABETES MELLITUS CAN ACTUALLY INDUCE ATHEROSCLEROSIS DEVELOPMENT OR FURTHER ACCELERATE ITS PROGRESSION. ELEVATED GLUCOSE LEVEL, DYSLIPIDEMIA, AND OTHER METABOLIC ALTERATIONS THAT ACCOMPANY THE DISEASE DEVELOPMENT ARE TIGHTLY INVOLVED IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS AT ALMOST EVERY STEP OF THE ATHEROGENIC PROCESS. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION IS CURRENTLY CONSIDERED AS ONE OF THE KEY FACTORS IN ATHEROSCLEROSIS DEVELOPMENT AND IS PRESENT STARTING FROM THE EARLIEST STAGES OF THE PATHOLOGY INITIATION. IT MAY ALSO BE REGARDED AS ONE OF THE POSSIBLE LINKS BETWEEN ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND DIABETES MELLITUS. HOWEVER, THE DATA AVAILABLE SO FAR DO NOT ALLOW FOR DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE ANTI-INFLAMMATORY THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES THAT WOULD STOP ATHEROSCLEROTIC LESION PROGRESSION OR INDUCE LESION REDUCTION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE THE MAIN ASPECTS OF DIABETES MELLITUS THAT POSSIBLY AFFECT THE ATHEROGENIC PROCESS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH CHRONIC INFLAMMATION. WE ALSO DISCUSS THE ESTABLISHED PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES THAT LINK ATHEROSCLEROSIS AND DIABETES MELLITUS, SUCH AS OXIDATIVE STRESS, ALTERED PROTEIN KINASE SIGNALING, AND THE ROLE OF CERTAIN MIRNA AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
17 6648  50 UPDATE ON DIAGNOSIS, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY, AND MANAGEMENT OF DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE (DKD) IS A CHRONIC COMPLICATION OF DIABETES MELLITUS WHICH MAY EVENTUALLY LEAD TO END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE (ESKD). DESPITE IMPROVEMENTS IN GLYCAEMIC CONTROL AND BLOOD PRESSURE MANAGEMENT WITH RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM (RAAS) BLOCKADE, THE CURRENT THERAPY CANNOT COMPLETELY HALT DKD PROGRESSION TO ESKD IN SOME PATIENTS. DKD IS A HETEROGENEOUS DISEASE ENTITY IN TERMS OF ITS CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS, HISTOPATHOLOGY AND THE RATE OF PROGRESSION, WHICH MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO DEVELOP EFFECTIVE THERAPEUTICS. IT WAS FORMERLY CONSIDERED THAT ALBUMINURIA PRECEDED KIDNEY FUNCTION DECLINE IN DKD, BUT RECENT EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES REVEALED THAT A DISTINCT GROUP OF PATIENTS PRESENTED KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION WITHOUT DEVELOPING ALBUMINURIA. OTHER COMORBIDITIES, SUCH AS HYPERTENSION, OBESITY AND GOUT, ALSO AFFECT THE CLINICAL COURSE OF DKD. THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF DKD IS COMPLEX AND MULTIFACTORIAL, INVOLVING BOTH METABOLIC AND HAEMODYNAMIC FACTORS. THESE INDUCE ACTIVATION OF INTRACELLULAR SIGNALLING PATHWAYS, OXIDATIVE STRESS, HYPOXIA, DYSREGULATED AUTOPHAGY AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES, WHICH RESULT IN KIDNEY INFLAMMATION AND FIBROSIS. RECENTLY, TWO GROUPS OF ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS, SODIUM-GLUCOSE COTRANSPORTER 2 (SGLT2) INHIBITORS AND GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 (GLP-1) RECEPTOR AGONISTS, WERE DEMONSTRATED TO PROVIDE RENOPROTECTION ON TOP OF THEIR GLUCOSE-LOWERING EFFECTS. SEVERAL OTHER THERAPEUTIC AGENTS ARE ALSO BEING DEVELOPED AND EVALUATED IN CLINICAL TRIALS.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
18 2965  47 GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY: A MOLECULAR LINK TO REGULATE GENE EXPRESSION. INTENSIFICATION IN THE FREQUENCY OF DIABETES AND THE ASSOCIATED VASCULAR COMPLICATIONS HAS BEEN A ROOT CAUSE OF BLINDNESS AND VISUAL IMPAIRMENT WORLDWIDE. ONE SUCH VASCULAR COMPLICATION WHICH HAS BEEN THE PROMINENT CAUSE OF BLINDNESS; RETINAL VASCULATURE, NEURONAL AND GLIAL ABNORMALITIES IS DIABETIC RETINOPATHY (DR), A CHRONIC COMPLICATED OUTCOME OF TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 DIABETES. IT HAS ALSO BECOME CLEAR THAT "GENETIC" VARIATIONS IN POPULATION ALONE CAN'T EXPLAIN THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESSION OF DIABETES AND ITS COMPLICATIONS INCLUDING DR. DR EXPERIENCES ENGAGEMENT OF FOREMOST MEDIATORS OF DIABETES SUCH AS HYPERGLYCEMIA, OXIDANT STRESS, AND INFLAMMATORY FACTORS THAT LEAD TO THE DYSREGULATION OF "EPIGENETIC" MECHANISMS INVOLVING HISTONE ACETYLATION AND HISTONE AND DNA METHYLATION, CHROMATIN REMODELING AND EXPRESSION OF A COMPLEX SET OF STRESS-REGULATED AND DISEASE-ASSOCIATED GENES. IN ADDITION, BOTH ELEVATED GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION AND INSULIN RESISTANCE LEAVE A ROBUST EFFECT ON EPIGENETIC REPROGRAMMING OF THE ENDOTHELIAL CELLS TOO, SINCE ENDOTHELIUM ASSOCIATED WITH THE EYE AIDS IN MAINTAINING THE VASCULAR HOMEOSTASIS. FURTHERMORE, SEVERAL STUDIES CONDUCTED ON THE DISEASE SUGGEST THAT THE MODIFICATIONS OF THE EPIGENOME MIGHT BE THE FUNDAMENTAL MECHANISM(S) FOR THE PROPOSED METABOLIC MEMORY' RESULTING INTO PROLONGED GENE EXPRESSION FOR INFLAMMATION AND CELLULAR DYSFUNCTION EVEN AFTER ATTAINING THE GLYCEMIC CONTROL IN DIABETICS. HENCEFORTH, THE PRESENT REVIEW FOCUSES ON THE ASPECTS OF GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN GENES SUCH AS VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR AND ALDOSE REDUCTASE CONSIDERED BEING ASSOCIATED WITH DR. IN ADDITION, WE DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE ROLE OF THE THIOREDOXIN-INTERACTING PROTEIN TXNIP, WHICH IS STRONGLY INDUCED BY HIGH GLUCOSE AND DIABETES, IN CELLULAR OXIDATIVE STRESS AND MITOCHONDRIAL DYSFUNCTION POTENTIALLY LEADING TO CHROMATIN REMODELING AND OCULAR COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES. THE IDENTIFICATION OF DISEASE-ASSOCIATED GENES AND THEIR EPIGENETIC REGULATIONS WILL LEAD TO POTENTIAL NEW DRUGS AND GENE THERAPIES AS WELL AS PERSONALIZED MEDICINE TO PREVENT OR SLOW DOWN THE PROGRESSION OF DR.	2016	

19 3333  34 HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITORS AND DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE. DESPITE RECENT CLINICAL TRIAL ADVANCES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN CLINICAL CARE, KIDNEY DISEASE DUE TO DIABETES REMAINS THE MOST COMMON CAUSE OF CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE WORLDWIDE. IN THE SEARCH FOR NEW TREATMENTS, RECENT ATTENTIONS HAVE TURNED TO DRUG REPURPOSING OPPORTUNITIES, INCLUDING STUDY OF THE HISTONE DEACETYLASE (HDAC) INHIBITOR CLASS OF AGENTS. HDACS ARE A GROUP OF ENZYMES THAT REMOVE FUNCTIONAL ACETYL GROUPS FROM HISTONE AND NON-HISTONE PROTEINS AND THEY CAN AFFECT CELLULAR FUNCTION THROUGH BOTH EPIGENETIC AND NON-EPIGENETIC MEANS. OVER THE PAST DECADE, SEVERAL HDAC INHIBITORS HAVE BEEN ADOPTED INTO CLINICAL PRACTICE, PRIMARILY FOR THE TREATMENT OF HEMATOLOGICAL MALIGNANCY, WHEREAS OTHER EXISTING THERAPIES (FOR INSTANCE VALPROATE) HAVE BEEN FOUND TO HAVE HDAC INHIBITORY EFFECTS. HERE WE REVIEW THE CURRENT HDAC INHIBITORS IN THE CLINIC AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT; THE LITERATURE EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE RENOPROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF HDAC INHIBITORS IN EXPERIMENTAL DIABETIC KIDNEY DISEASE; AND THE ADVERSE EFFECT PROFILES THAT MAY PREVENT EXISTING THERAPIES FROM ENTERING THE CLINIC FOR THIS INDICATION. WHEREAS RECENT RESEARCH EFFORTS HAVE SHED LIGHT ON THE FUNDAMENTAL ACTIONS OF HDACS IN THE DIABETIC KIDNEY, WHETHER THESE EFFORTS WILL TRANSLATE INTO NOVEL THERAPIES FOR PATIENTS WILL REQUIRE MORE SPECIFIC AND BETTER-TOLERATED THERAPIES.	2018	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
20 2154  41 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND KIDNEY DISEASES. IN RECENT YEARS, MOLECULAR RESEARCH HAS BROUGHT TO LIGHT A SERIES OF MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF GENE FUNCTION WITHOUT ALTERING THE DNA SEQUENCE. THESE MECHANISMS ARE DESCRIBED WITH THE TERM "EPIGENETICS" AND INCLUDE MODIFICATIONS IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN GENOME, LEADING TO HERITABLE AND POTENTIALLY REVERSIBLE CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION. THERE IS NOW INCREASING EVIDENCE SUGGESTING THAT SEVERAL CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE SUCH AS HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA, SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATION, INCREASED OXIDATIVE STRESS AND OTHERS MAY AFFECT THE HUMAN EPIGENOME. IN ADDITION, ANIMAL STUDIES HAVE SUGGESTED A POSSIBLE LINK BETWEEN NUTRITION AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE DURING THE PERICONCEPTIONAL PERIOD AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN THE EXPRESSION OF MAJOR GENES IMPLICATED IN KIDNEY ORGANOGENESIS; THESE CHANGES RESULT IN A DIMINISHED NUMBER OF NEPHRONS IN THE DEVELOPING KIDNEY, WHICH PREDISPOSES TO AN INCREASED RISK FOR HYPERTENSION AND CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE IN FUTURE LIFE. THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE ROLE OF EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE OPENS NEW AVENUES FOR FUTURE THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES, THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL AGENTS THAT TARGET DIRECTLY WITH THE CHANGES IN THE HUMAN EPIGENOME. SUCH EPIGENETIC DRUGS ARE ALREADY IN CLINICAL USE FOR THE TREATMENT OF CANCER AS WELL AS UNDER INVESTIGATION FOR THE USE IN OTHER DISEASES. THIS REVIEW WILL SUMMARIZE THE EXISTING DATA ON THE LINK BETWEEN EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND CHRONIC UREMIC MILIEU, AS WELL AS THE PROMISING RESULTS OF ONGOING RESEARCH IN THE FIELD OF EPIGENETIC DRUGS THAT COULD REPRESENT ADDITIONAL OPTIONS IN OUR THERAPEUTIC ARMAMENTARIUM FOR PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE.	2011