1  761 157 CATEGORIZING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN CARCINOGENS: A NEED FOR SPECIFICITY. THE INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER (IARC) HAS RECENTLY PROPOSED EMPLOYING "TEN KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN CARCINOGENS" (TKCS) TO DETERMINE THE POTENTIAL OF AGENTS FOR HARMFUL EFFECTS. THE TKCS SEEM LIKELY TO CONFUSE THE UNSATISFACTORY CORRELATION FROM TESTING REGIMES THAT HAVE IGNORED THE DIFFERENCES EVIDENT WHEN CELLULAR CHANGES ARE COMPARED IN SHORT AND LONG-LIVED SPECIES, WITH THEIR VERY DIFFERENT STEM CELL AND SOMATIC CELL PHYLOGENIES. THE PROPOSED CHARACTERISTICS ARE SO BROAD THAT THEIR USE WILL LEAD TO AN INCREASE IN THE CURRENT UNACCEPTABLY HIGH RATE OF FALSE POSITIVES. IT COULD BE AN INFORMATIVE EXPERIMENT TO TAKE WELL-ESTABLISHED APPROVED THERAPEUTICS WITH WELL-KNOWN HUMAN SAFETY PROFILES AND TEST THEM AGAINST THIS NEW TKC PARADIGM. CANCERS ARE INITIATED AND DRIVEN BY HERITABLE AND TRANSIENT CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION, EXPAND CLONALLY, AND PROGRESS VIA ADDITIONAL ASSOCIATED ACQUIRED MUTATIONS AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS THAT PROVIDE CELLS WITH AN EVOLUTIONARY ADVANTAGE. THE GENOTOXICITY TESTING PROTOCOLS CURRENTLY EMPLOYED AND REQUIRED BY REGULATION, EMPHASIZE TESTING FOR THE MUTATIONAL POTENTIAL OF THE TEST AGENT. TWO-YEAR, CHRONIC RODENT CANCER BIOASSAYS ARE INTENDED TO TEST FOR THE ENTIRE SPECTRUM OF CARCINOGENIC TRANSFORMATION. THE USE OF CYTOTOXIC DOSES CAUSING INCREASED, SUSTAINED CELL PROLIFERATION THAT FACILITATES ACCUMULATED GENETIC DAMAGE LEADS TO A HIGH FALSE-POSITIVE RATE OF TUMOR INDUCTION. CURRENT CANCER HAZARD ASSESSMENT PROTOCOLS AND WEIGHT-OF-THE-EVIDENCE ANALYSIS OF AGENT-SPECIFIC CANCER RISK ALIGN POORLY WITH THE PATHOGENESIS OF HUMAN CARCINOMA AND SO NEED MODERNIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT IN WAYS SUGGESTED HERE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
2 3418  34 HUMAN HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF ENVIRONMENTALLY-MODULATED GENE EXPRESSION: POTENTIAL ROLES OF ELF-EMF INDUCED EPIGENETIC VERSUS MUTAGENIC MECHANISMS OF DISEASE. IN ORDER TO DETERMINE IF THERE MIGHT BE BIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH CONSEQUENCES AFTER EXPOSURES TO EXTREMELY-LOW FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS (ELF-EMF), EITHER EXPERIMENTALLY OR EPIDEMIOLOGICALLY, MECHANISTIC UNDERSTANDING OF THE POTENTIAL MEANS BY WHICH ANY ENVIRONMENTAL AGENT CAN AFFECT CELLS IN A MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM HAS TO BE REVIEWED. THE GOAL OF THIS LIMITED REVIEW IS TO DEMONSTRATE THAT, WHILE THE PREVAILING PARADIGM OF THE ENVIRONMENTALLY-INDUCED ACUTE AND CHRONIC DISEASES INVOLVES EITHER CELL KILLING (CYTOTOXICITY) OR GENE/CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS (GENOTOXICITY), ALTERATION OF THE EXPRESSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION AT THE TRANSCRIPTIONAL (TURNING GENES "ON" OR "OFF"), TRANSLATIONAL (STABILIZING OR DE-STABILIZING THE GENETIC MESSAGE), OR POSTTRANSLATIONAL (ALTERING THE GENE PRODUCT OR PROTEIN) LEVELS HAS THE POTENTIAL TO CONTRIBUTE TO VARIOUS DISEASES. THIS LATTER MECHANISM, "EPIGENETIC" TOXICITY, UNLIKE THE FORMER TWO WHICH ARE IRREVERSIBLE, IS CHARACTERIZED BY THRESHOLD-LIKE ACTION, MULTIPLE BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS AND CHRONIC, REGULAR EXPOSURES TO BE EFFECTIVE. ULTIMATELY, EPIGENETIC TOXICANTS AFFECT ONE OF FOUR POTENTIAL CELL STATES, NAMELY ALTERATION OF CELL PROLIFERATION, CELL DIFFERENTIATION, PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH (APOPTOSIS) OR ADAPTIVE RESPONSES OF DIFFERENTIATED CELLS.	2000	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
3 1340  27 DESIGNING SAFER DRUGS: (Q)SAR-BASED IDENTIFICATION OF MUTAGENS AND CARCINOGENS. MUTAGENICITY AND CARCINOGENICITY ARE CHRONIC EFFECTS OF PRIMARY CONCERN FOR HUMAN HEALTH. A UNIFYING APPROACH TO THEIR MECHANISTIC UNDERSTANDING IS THE RECOGNITION THAT MANY CHEMICALS PROVOKE BOTH EFFECTS BY ELECTROPHILIC ATTACK TO THE BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES, AS SUCH OR AFTER METABOLISM (GENOTOXIC CARCINOGENICITY). QSARS OF INDIVIDUAL CLASSES OF GENOTOXIC CARCINOGENS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE ELUCIDATION OF THE CHEMICAL DETERMINANTS OF THIS ACTIVITY. LITTLE WORK HAS BEEN DONE ON THE EPIGENETIC CARCINOGENS, ACTING THROUGH NON-GENOTOXIC, VERY SPECIFIC MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, THE EXISTING QSARS FOR INDIVIDUAL CHEMICAL CLASSES ARE TOO FEW TO BE OF REAL USEFULNESS IN THE SCREENING OF MASSES OF CANDIDATE DRUGS. MODELS FOR PREDICTING THE CARCINOGENICITY OF "ANY TYPE" OF CHEMICALS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED: PROSPECTIVE PREDICTION EXERCISES POINTED TO THE SERIOUS LIMITATIONS OF MOST OF THESE APPROACHES. THE BEST ALTERNATIVE IS PROVIDED BY PANELS OF HUMAN EXPERTS. THE ABOVE PREDICTION EXERCISES CONSIDERED SAMPLES OF GENERAL CHEMICALS, THUS WE SPECIFICALLY ADDRESSED IN THIS PAPER THE ISSUE OF PHARMACEUTICAL DRUGS. WE APPLIED OUR EXPERT KNOWLEDGE TO A DATABASE OF DRUGS WHOSE CARCINOGENICITY/NONCARCINOGENICITY STATUS WAS KNOWN. WHEREAS MOST OF THE NONCARCINOGENS WERE CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED, OUR PREDICTION OF CARCINOGENS WAS LESS SUCCESSFUL THAN WITH THE GENERAL CHEMICALS. SEVERAL CARCINOGENIC DRUGS DID NOT SHOW RECOGNIZED STRUCTURAL ALERTS, AND SUPPOSEDLY ACTED BY EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS. WHEREAS THE CONTRIBUTION OF HUMAN EXPERTS IS HIGHLY VALUABLE IN THIS PHASE (E.G. PRIORITY SETTING), MORE WORK IS NECESSARY ON: A) EPIGENETIC CARCINOGENS; B) EFFICIENT COMPUTERIZED MODELS.	2003	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
4  705  27 BUILDING RISK-ON-A-CHIP MODELS TO IMPROVE BREAST CANCER RISK ASSESSMENT AND PREVENTION. PREVENTIVE ACTIONS FOR CHRONIC DISEASES HOLD THE PROMISE OF IMPROVING LIVES AND REDUCING HEALTHCARE COSTS. FOR SEVERAL DISEASES, INCLUDING BREAST CANCER, MULTIPLE RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED BY EPIDEMIOLOGISTS. THE IMPACT OF MOST OF THESE FACTORS HAS YET TO BE FULLY UNDERSTOOD AT THE ORGANISM, TISSUE, CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR LEVELS. IMPORTANTLY, COMBINATIONS OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS INVOLVE COOPERATIVITY THUS, SYNERGIZING OR ANTAGONIZING DISEASE ONSET. MODELS ARE NEEDED TO MECHANISTICALLY DECIPHER CANCER RISKS UNDER DEFINED CELLULAR AND MICROENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS. HERE, WE BRIEFLY REVIEW BREAST CANCER RISK MODELS BASED ON 3D CELL CULTURE AND PROPOSE TO IMPROVE RISK MODELING WITH LAB-ON-A-CHIP APPROACHES. WE SUGGEST EPITHELIAL TISSUE POLARITY, DNA REPAIR AND EPIGENETIC PROFILES AS ENDPOINTS IN RISK ASSESSMENT MODELS AND DISCUSS THE DEVELOPMENT OF 'RISKS-ON-CHIPS' INTEGRATING BIOSENSORS OF THESE ENDPOINTS AND OF GENERAL TISSUE HOMEOSTASIS. RISKS-ON-CHIPS WILL HELP IDENTIFY BIOMARKERS OF RISK, SERVE AS SCREENING PLATFORMS FOR CANCER PREVENTIVE AGENTS, AND PROVIDE A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF RISK MECHANISMS, HENCE RESULTING IN NOVEL DEVELOPMENTS IN DISEASE PREVENTION.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
5  389  26 AN INTEGRATIVE HYPOTHESIS LINKING CANCER, DIABETES AND ATHEROSCLEROSIS: THE ROLE OF MUTATIONS AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES. IT APPEARS THAT THE DISEASE STATES OF CANCER, ALTHEROSCLEROSIS AND DIABETES MIGHT SHARE A COMMON ETIOLOGY. THESE CHRONIC DISEASES APPEAR TO BE MULTI-STAGED IN THEIR PROGRESSION, WITH GENETIC, NUTRITIONAL, PSYCHO-SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND VIRAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THEIR APPEARANCE. WE OFFERED A HYPOTHESIS (A "MUTATION THEORY OF DISEASE"), STATING THAT THESE DISEASES CAN BE DESCRIBED BY INITIATION AND PROMOTION PHASES; INITIATION BEING THE RESULT OF THE PRODUCTION OF MUTATED CELLS AFTER UNREPAIRED DAMAGED DNA IS REPLICATED; PROMOTION BEING THE SELECTIVE PROLIFERATION OF THE INITIATED CELLS TO FORM CLONES OF MUTATED CELLS. IT WAS FURTHER POSTULATED THAT PROMOTION AFFECTS CELL PROLIFERATION BY ALTERING A MEMBRANE-CA++ REGULATORY SYSTEM. DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF THE MUTATION IN THE CLONE OF CELLS, SPECIFIC DISEASE STATES WOULD RESULT. THE ROLES OF RADIATIONS, CHEMICALS, VIRUSES, GENES, NUTRITION AND PSYCHO-SOCIAL STRESS WERE RELATED TO EITHER THE INITIATION (MUTATION PRODUCTION) OR THE PROMOTION (CELL PROLIFERATION) PHASE OF THESE DISEASES.	1980	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
6 6655  23 UPDATE ON THE MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY OF CUTANEOUS SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA. CUTANEOUS SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (CSCC) IS THE SECOND MOST COMMON SKIN CANCER, ORIGINATING FROM KERATINOCYTES OF THE SPINOUS LAYER. NUMEROUS RISK FACTORS HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED FOR THE INITIATION AND GROWTH OF THIS TYPE OF CANCER, SUCH AS EXPOSURE TO UV AND IONIZING RADIATION, CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS, THE PRESENCE OF IMMUNOSUPPRESSION STATES, CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, INFECTIONS WITH HIGH-RISK VIRAL STRAINS, AND, LAST BUT NOT LEAST, THE PRESENCE OF DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH GENETIC ALTERATIONS. THE IMPORTANT SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT, AS WELL AS THE DIFFICULTY ASSOCIATED WITH THERAPY FOR ADVANCED FORMS, HAS MADE THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THIS NEOPLASIA MORE AND MORE INTENSIVELY STUDIED, WITH THE INTENTION OF ACHIEVING A BETTER UNDERSTANDING AND ADVANCING THE TREATMENT OF THIS PATHOLOGY. THIS REVIEW AIMS TO PROVIDE A BRIEF FORAY INTO THE MOLECULAR, GENETIC, AND EPIGENETIC ASPECTS OF THIS CANCER, AS WELL AS THE TREATMENT METHODS, RANGING FROM THE FIRST USED TO THE LATEST TARGETED THERAPIES.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
7  266  48 ADVERSE OUTCOME PATHWAYS FOR IONIZING RADIATION AND BREAST CANCER INVOLVE DIRECT AND INDIRECT DNA DAMAGE, OXIDATIVE STRESS, INFLAMMATION, GENOMIC INSTABILITY, AND INTERACTION WITH HORMONAL REGULATION OF THE BREAST. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ESTABLISHED BREAST CARCINOGENS CAN SUPPORT IMPROVED AND MODERNIZED TOXICOLOGICAL TESTING METHODS BY IDENTIFYING KEY MECHANISTIC EVENTS. IONIZING RADIATION (IR) INCREASES THE RISK OF BREAST CANCER, ESPECIALLY FOR WOMEN AND FOR EXPOSURE AT YOUNGER AGES, AND EVIDENCE OVERALL SUPPORTS A LINEAR DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP. WE USED THE ADVERSE OUTCOME PATHWAY (AOP) FRAMEWORK TO OUTLINE AND EVALUATE THE EVIDENCE LINKING IONIZING RADIATION WITH BREAST CANCER FROM MOLECULAR INITIATING EVENTS TO THE ADVERSE OUTCOME THROUGH INTERMEDIATE KEY EVENTS, CREATING A QUALITATIVE AOP. WE IDENTIFIED KEY EVENTS BASED ON REVIEW ARTICLES, SEARCHED PUBMED FOR RECENT LITERATURE ON KEY EVENTS AND IR, AND IDENTIFIED ADDITIONAL PAPERS USING REFERENCES. WE MANUALLY CURATED PUBLICATIONS AND EVALUATED DATA QUALITY. IONIZING RADIATION DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY CAUSES DNA DAMAGE AND INCREASES PRODUCTION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN AND NITROGEN SPECIES (RONS). RONS LEAD TO DNA DAMAGE AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES LEADING TO MUTATIONS AND GENOMIC INSTABILITY (GI). PROLIFERATION AMPLIFIES THE EFFECTS OF DNA DAMAGE AND MUTATIONS LEADING TO THE AO OF BREAST CANCER. SEPARATELY, RONS AND DNA DAMAGE ALSO INCREASE INFLAMMATION. INFLAMMATION CONTRIBUTES TO DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS (EFFECTS IN CELLS NOT DIRECTLY REACHED BY IR) VIA POSITIVE FEEDBACK TO RONS AND DNA DAMAGE, AND SEPARATELY INCREASES PROLIFERATION AND BREAST CANCER THROUGH PRO-CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS ON CELLS AND TISSUE. FOR EXAMPLE, GENE EXPRESSION CHANGES ALTER INFLAMMATORY MEDIATORS, RESULTING IN IMPROVED SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF CANCER CELLS AND A MORE HOSPITABLE TISSUE ENVIRONMENT. ALL OF THESE EVENTS OVERLAP AT MULTIPLE POINTS WITH EVENTS CHARACTERISTIC OF "BACKGROUND" INDUCTION OF BREAST CARCINOGENESIS, INCLUDING HORMONE-RESPONSIVE PROLIFERATION, OXIDATIVE ACTIVITY, AND DNA DAMAGE. THESE OVERLAPS MAKE THE BREAST PARTICULARLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO IONIZING RADIATION AND REINFORCE THAT THESE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES ARE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF CARCINOGENS. AGENTS THAT INCREASE THESE BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES SHOULD BE CONSIDERED POTENTIAL BREAST CARCINOGENS, AND PREDICTIVE METHODS ARE NEEDED TO IDENTIFY CHEMICALS THAT INCREASE THESE PROCESSES. TECHNIQUES ARE AVAILABLE TO MEASURE RONS, DNA DAMAGE AND MUTATION, CELL PROLIFERATION, AND SOME INFLAMMATORY PROTEINS OR PROCESSES. IMPROVED ASSAYS ARE NEEDED TO MEASURE GI AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, AS WELL AS THE INTERACTION WITH HORMONALLY DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT AND PROLIFERATION. SEVERAL METHODS MEASURE DIVERSE EPIGENETIC CHANGES, BUT IT IS NOT CLEAR WHICH CHANGES ARE RELEVANT TO BREAST CANCER. IN ADDITION, MOST TOXICOLOGICAL ASSAYS ARE NOT CONDUCTED IN MAMMARY TISSUE, AND SO IT IS A PRIORITY TO EVALUATE IF RESULTS FROM OTHER TISSUES ARE GENERALIZABLE TO BREAST, OR TO CONDUCT ASSAYS IN BREAST TISSUE. DEVELOPING AND APPLYING THESE ASSAYS TO IDENTIFY EXPOSURES OF CONCERN WILL FACILITATE EFFORTS TO REDUCE SUBSEQUENT BREAST CANCER RISK.	2020	

8 2901  36 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN GERM-CELL MUTAGENESIS AND GENETIC RISK. CURRENT INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR CHEMICAL MUTAGENS ARE HAZARD-BASED RATHER THAN AIMED AT ASSESSING RISKS QUANTITATIVELY. IN THE PAST, GERM-CELL TESTS HAVE BEEN MAINLY PERFORMED WITH A LIMITED NUMBER OF SOMATIC CELL MUTAGENS, AND RARELY UNDER CONDITIONS AIMED AT COMPARING GENDER-SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES IN SUSCEPTIBILITY TO MUTAGEN EXPOSURES. THERE ARE PROFOUND DIFFERENCES IN THE GENETIC CONSTITUTION, AND IN HORMONAL, STRUCTURAL, AND FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIATION AND CONTROL OF GAMETOGENESIS BETWEEN THE SEXES. A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE SUGGESTS THAT THESE DIFFERENCES MAY HAVE A PROFOUND IMPACT ON THE RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY, STAGE OF HIGHEST SENSITIVITY AND THE RELATIVE RISK FOR THE GENESIS OF GENE MUTATION, AS WELL AS STRUCTURAL AND NUMERICAL CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS IN MALE AND FEMALE GERM CELLS. TRANSMISSION OF GERM-CELL MUTATIONS TO THE OFFSPRING MAY ALSO ENCOUNTER GENDER-SPECIFIC INFLUENCES. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SUSCEPTIBILITY TO CHEMICALLY DERIVED ALTERATIONS IN IMPRINTING PATTERNS MAY POSE A THREAT FOR THE HEALTH OF THE OFFSPRING AND MAY ALSO BE TRANSMITTED TO FUTURE GENERATIONS. RECENT REPORTS ON DIFFERENT GENETIC EFFECTS FROM HIGH ACUTE AND FROM CHRONIC LOW-DOSE EXPOSURES CHALLENGE THE VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM STANDARD METHODS OF MUTAGENICITY TESTING. IN CONCLUSION, RESEARCH IS URGENTLY NEEDED TO IDENTIFY GENETIC HAZARDS FOR A LARGER RANGE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS, INCLUDING THOSE SUSPECTED TO DISTURB PROPER CHROMOSOME SEGREGATION. ALTERATIONS IN EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING AND THEIR HEALTH CONSEQUENCES WILL HAVE TO BE INVESTIGATED. MORE ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO GENDER-SPECIFIC GENETIC EFFECTS. FINALLY, THE DATABASE FOR GERM-CELL MUTAGENS SHOULD BE ENLARGED USING MOLECULAR METHODOLOGIES, AND GENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY STUDIES SHOULD BE PERFORMED WITH THESE TECHNIQUES TO VERIFY HUMAN GENETIC RISK.	2007	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
9 5281  32 PROMOTION AND SELECTION BY SERUM GROWTH FACTORS DRIVE FIELD CANCERIZATION, WHICH IS ANTICIPATED IN VIVO BY TYPE 2 DIABETES AND OBESITY. INDIVIDUALS SUFFERING FROM TYPE 2 DIABETES OR OBESITY EXHIBIT A SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN THE INCIDENCE OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CANCER. IT IS GENERALLY ACCEPTED THAT THOSE CONDITIONS ARISE FROM OVERNUTRITION AND A SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE, WHICH LEAD TO INSULIN RESISTANCE CHARACTERIZED BY OVERPRODUCTION OF INSULIN ACTING AS A GROWTH FACTOR. THERE IS A CONSENSUS BASED LARGELY ON EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA THAT CHRONIC OVERPRODUCTION OF INSULIN IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INCREASED INCIDENCE OF CANCER. A MODEL SYSTEM IN CULTURE OF NIH 3T3 CELLS INDUCES THE COLLECTIVE EFFECTS OF SERUM GROWTH FACTORS ON PROGRESSION THROUGH THE STAGES OF FIELD CANCERIZATION. IT SHOWS THAT THE DRIVING FORCE OF PROGRESSION IS PROMOTION OF CELL GROWTH UNDER SELECTION AT HIGH CELL DENSITY, WITH NO REQUIREMENT FOR EXOGENOUS CARCINOGENIC AGENTS. THE EARLY EFFECT IS GRADUAL SELECTION AMONG MANY PREEXISTING, LOW-PENETRANCE PRENEOPLASTIC MUTATIONS OR STABLE EPIGENETIC VARIANTS, FOLLOWED BY SPORADIC, HIGH-PENETRANCE TRANSFORMING VARIANTS, ALL DEPENDENT ON ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESULTS FOR CANCER IN DIABETIC AND OBESE INDIVIDUALS IS THAT THE INITIAL STAGES OF THE PROCESS INVOLVE MULTIORGAN METABOLIC INTERACTIONS THAT PRODUCE A SYSTEMIC INSULIN RESISTANCE WITH CHRONIC OVERPRODUCTION OF INSULIN AND LOCALIZED FIELD CANCERIZATION. HYPOMAGNESEMIA IS PREVALENT IN THE FOREGOING METABALO/SYSTEMIC DISORDERS, AND MAY ALSO PROVIDE A SELECTIVE MICROENVIRONMENT FOR TUMOR DEVELOPMENT.	2013	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
10 1524  15 DNA METHYLATION CHANGES IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS: CAUSE OR CONSEQUENCE? TWIN AND SIBLING STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT LUNG DISEASE SEVERITY IS VARIABLE AMONG CYSTIC FIBROSIS (CF) PATIENTS AND AFFECTED TO THE SAME EXTENT BY GENETIC AND NONHERITABLE FACTORS. GENETIC FACTORS HAVE BEEN THOROUGHLY ASSESSED, WHEREAS THE MOLECULAR MECHANISMS WHEREBY NONHERITABLE FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO THE PHENOTYPIC VARIABILITY OF CF PATIENTS ARE STILL UNKNOWN. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS MAY REPRESENT THE MISSING LINK BETWEEN NONHERITABLE FACTORS AND PHENOTYPIC VARIATION IN CF. HEREIN, WE REVIEW RECENT STUDIES SHOWING THAT DNA METHYLATION IS ALTERED IN CF AND WE ADDRESS THREE POSSIBLE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THESE VARIATIONS: (I) OVERPRODUCTION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES, (II) DEPLETION OF DNA METHYLATION COFACTORS AND (III) SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ACUTE AND CHRONIC BACTERIAL INFECTIONS. ALSO, WE HYPOTHESIZE THAT THE UNIQUE DNA METHYLATION PROFILE OF EACH PATIENT CAN MODULATE THE PHENOTYPE AND DISCUSS THE INTEREST OF IMPLEMENTING INTEGRATED GENOMIC, EPIGENOMIC AND TRANSCRIPTOMIC STUDIES TO FURTHER UNDERSTAND THE CLINICAL DIVERSITY OF CF PATIENTS (GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT).	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
11 5447  35 REPOSITIONING LIDOCAINE AS AN ANTICANCER DRUG: THE ROLE BEYOND ANESTHESIA. WHILE CANCER TREATMENT HAS IMPROVED DRAMATICALLY, IT HAS ALSO ENCOUNTERED MANY CRITICAL CHALLENGES, SUCH AS DISEASE RECURRENCE, METASTASIS, AND DRUG RESISTANCE, MAKING NEW DRUGS WITH NOVEL MECHANISMS AN URGENT CLINICAL NEED. THE TERM "DRUG REPOSITIONING," ALSO KNOWN AS OLD DRUGS FOR NEW USES, HAS EMERGED AS ONE PRACTICAL STRATEGY TO DEVELOP NEW ANTICANCER DRUGS. ANESTHETICS HAVE BEEN WIDELY USED IN SURGICAL PROCEDURES TO REDUCE THE EXCRUCIATING PAIN. LIDOCAINE, ONE OF THE MOST-USED LOCAL ANESTHETICS IN CLINICAL SETTINGS, HAS BEEN FOUND TO SHOW MULTI-ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING POTENTIAL IN CANCER TREATMENT. GROWING EVIDENCE SHOWS THAT LIDOCAINE MAY NOT ONLY WORK AS A CHEMOSENSITIZER THAT SENSITIZES OTHER CONVENTIONAL CHEMOTHERAPEUTICS TO CERTAIN RESISTANT CANCER CELLS, BUT ALSO COULD SUPPRESS CANCER CELLS GROWTH BY SINGLE USE AT DIFFERENT DOSES OR CONCENTRATIONS. LIDOCAINE COULD SUPPRESS CANCER CELL GROWTH IN VITRO AND IN VIVO VIA MULTIPLE MECHANISMS, SUCH AS REGULATING EPIGENETIC CHANGES AND PROMOTING PRO-APOPTOSIS PATHWAYS, AS WELL AS REGULATING ABC TRANSPORTERS, METASTASIS, AND ANGIOGENESIS, ETC., PROVIDING VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR ITS FURTHER APPLICATION IN CANCER TREATMENT AND FOR NEW DRUG DISCOVERY. IN ADDITION, LIDOCAINE IS NOW UNDER CLINICAL TRIALS TO TREAT CERTAIN TYPES OF CANCER. IN THE CURRENT REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE THE RESEARCH AND ANALYZE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS, AND ADDRESS KEY ISSUES IN THIS AREA.	2020	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
12  943  28 CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA. PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES: THOSE WHO ARE MINIMALLY AFFECTED BY THE PROBLEM, OFTEN NEVER REQUIRING THERAPY; THOSE THAT INITIALLY FOLLOW AN INDOLENT COURSE BUT SUBSEQUENTLY PROGRESS AND REQUIRE THERAPY; AND THOSE THAT FROM THE POINT OF DIAGNOSIS EXHIBIT AN AGGRESSIVE DISEASE NECESSITATING TREATMENT. LIKEWISE, SUCH PATIENTS PASS THROUGH THREE PHASES: DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISEASE, DIAGNOSIS, AND NEED FOR THERAPY. FINALLY, THE LEUKEMIC CLONES OF ALL PATIENTS APPEAR TO REQUIRE CONTINUOUS INPUT FROM THE EXTERIOR, MOST OFTEN THROUGH MEMBRANE RECEPTORS, TO ALLOW THEM TO SURVIVE AND GROW. THIS REVIEW IS PRESENTED ACCORDING TO THE TEMPORAL COURSE THAT THE DISEASE FOLLOWS, FOCUSING ON THOSE EXTERNAL INFLUENCES FROM THE TISSUE MICROENVIRONMENT (TME) THAT SUPPORT THE TIME LINES AS WELL AS THOSE INTERNAL INFLUENCES THAT ARE INHERITED OR DEVELOP AS GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CHANGES OCCURRING OVER THE TIME LINE. REGARDING THE FORMER, SPECIAL EMPHASIS IS PLACED ON THE INPUT PROVIDED VIA THE B-CELL RECEPTOR FOR ANTIGEN AND THE C-X-C-MOTIF CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR-4 AND THE THERAPEUTIC AGENTS THAT BLOCK THESE INPUTS. REGARDING THE LATTER, PROMINENCE IS LAID UPON INHERITED SUSCEPTIBILITY GENES AND THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES THAT LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENTAL AND PROGRESSION OF THE DISEASE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
13 4018  40 LOW-DOSE IONIZING RADIATION: INDUCTION OF DIFFERENTIAL INTRACELLULAR SIGNALLING POSSIBLY AFFECTING INTERCELLULAR COMMUNICATION. GIVEN THE COMPLEXITY OF THE CARCINOGENIC PROCESS AND THE LACK OF ANY MECHANISTIC UNDERSTANDING OF HOW IONIZING RADIATION AT LOW-LEVEL EXPOSURES AFFECTS THE MULTISTAGE, MULTIMECHANISM PROCESSES OF CARCINOGENESIS, IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT CONCEPTS AND PARADIGMS BE REEXAMINED WHEN EXTRAPOLATING FROM HIGH DOSE TO LOW DOSE. ANY HEALTH EFFECT DIRECTLY LINKED TO LOW-DOSE RADIATION EXPOSURE MUST HAVE MOLECULAR/BIOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL BASES. ON THE OTHER HAND, DEMONSTRATING SOME MOLECULAR/BIOCHEMICAL OR CELLULAR EFFECT, USING SURROGATE SYSTEMS FOR THE HUMAN BEING, DOES NOT NECESSARILY IMPLY A CORRESPONDING HEALTH EFFECT. GIVEN THE GENERAL ACCEPTANCE OF AN EXTRAPOLATED LNT MODEL, OUR CURRENT UNDERSTANDING OF CARCINOGENESIS CRIES OUT FOR A RESOLUTION OF A REAL PROBLEM. HOW CAN A LOW-LEVEL ACUTE, OR EVEN A CHRONIC, EXPOSURE OF IONIZING RADIATION BRING ABOUT ALL THE DIFFERENT MECHANISMS (MUTAGENIC, CYTOTOXIC, AND EPIGENETIC) AND GENOTYPIC/PHENOTYPIC CHANGES NEEDED TO CONVERT NORMAL CELLS TO AN INVASIVE, MALIGNANT CELL, GIVEN ALL THE PROTECTIVE, REPAIR, AND SUPPRESSIVE SYSTEMS KNOWN TO EXIST IN THE HUMAN BODY? UNTIL RECENTLY, THE PREVAILING PARADIGM THAT IONIZING RADIATION BRINGS ABOUT CANCER PRIMARILY BY DNA DAMAGE AND ITS CONVERSION TO GENE AND CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS, DROVE OUR INTERPRETATION OF RADIATION CARCINOGENESIS. TODAY, OUR KNOWLEDGE INCLUDES THE FACTS BOTH THAT EPIGENETIC EVENTS PLAY A MAJOR ROLE IN CARCINOGENESIS AND THAT LOW-DOSE RADIATION CAN ALSO INDUCE EPIGENETIC EVENTS IN AND BETWEEN CELLS IN TISSUES. THIS CHALLENGES ANY SIMPLE EXTRAPOLATION OF THE LNT MODEL. ALTHOUGH A RECENT DELINEATION OF "HALLMARKS" OF THE CANCER PROCESS HAS HELPED TO FOCUS ON HOW IONIZING RADIATION MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE INDUCTION OF CANCERS, SEVERAL OTHER HALLMARKS, PREVIOUSLY IGNORED--NAMELY, THE STEM CELLS IN TISSUES AS TARGETS FOR CARCINOGENESIS AND THE ROLE OF CELL-CELL COMMUNICATION PROCESSES IN MODULATING THE RADIATION EFFECTS ON THE TARGET CELL--MUST BE CONSIDERED, PARTICULARLY FOR THE ADAPTIVE RESPONSE, BYSTANDER EFFECTS, AND GENOMIC INSTABILITY PHENOMENA.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
14 4027  32 LUNG CANCER IN A CF PATIENT: COMBINATION OF BAD LUCK OR IS THERE MORE TO SAY? PATIENTS WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS HAVE INCREASED RISK FOR GASTROINTESTINAL CANCER, LYMPHOID LEUKEMIA AND TESTICULAR CARCINOMAS. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION DOES NOT SEEM TO BE THE ONLY CONTRIBUTING FACTOR. MUTATIONS AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN THE CFTR GENE MAY ALTER SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DEVELOP CANCER. LUNG CANCER IS UP TO NOW NOT FREQUENTLY OBSERVED IN CF PATIENTS. IN LUNG CANCER PATIENTS WITHOUT CF LOW CFTR EXPRESSION IS SIGNIFICANTLY ASSOCIATED WITH ADVANCED STAGING, LYMPH NODE METASTASIS. AS THE MANAGEMENT AND LIFE EXPECTANCY OF PATIENTS WITH CYSTIC FIBROSIS HAVE IMPROVED SUBSTANTIALLY IN RECENT YEARS, WE EXPECT AN INCREASED NUMBER OF THESE PATIENTS DIAGNOSED WITH LUNG CANCER. IN ADDITION, IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THEY, AS A RESULT OF CFTR-DYSFUNCTION, WILL PRESENT WITH MORE AGGRESSIVE LUNG TUMORS. TREATING CANCER IN CF PATIENTS IS A CHALLENGE BECAUSE OF MULTI-ORGAN INVOLVEMENT AND CHRONIC COLONIZATION BY RESISTANT PATHOGENS. THE EFFECTIVENESS AND SAFETY OF IMMUNOTHERAPY IN THIS POPULATION NEEDS TO BE FURTHER EVALUATED.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
15 5905  27 TACKLING THE HETEROGENEITY OF CVID. PURPOSE OF REVIEW: COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY IS CLINICALLY THE MOST RELEVANT PRIMARY IMMUNODEFICIENCY OF THE ADULT. ITS HETEROGENEITY HAS HINDERED PROGRESS IN THE PATHOGENETIC UNDERSTANDING OF THE MAJORITY OF COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY PATIENTS. THIS ABSTRACT SUMMARIZES RECENT ASPECTS OF THE FIELD AND EMPHASIZES THE NEED FOR A COMMONLY ACCEPTED APPROACH TO CLASSIFY COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY. RECENT FINDINGS: IN THE LAST 2 YEARS, THE FIRST GENETIC DEFECTS UNDERLYING COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY, INCLUDING ICOS, TACI, BAFF-R AND CD19, HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED. THE ANALYSIS OF DENDRITIC CELLS DEMONSTRATED ALTERATIONS IN A MAJORITY OF PATIENTS IN ADDITION TO THE DISTURBED T AND B-CELL FUNCTION. SEVERAL CHANGES OF THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM MIGHT BE SECONDARY TO AN UNDERLYING CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY SETTING POSSIBLY DUE TO A HHV8 INFECTION IN A SUBGROUP OF PATIENTS WITH GRANULOMATOUS DISEASE, AUTOIMMUNE PHENOMENA AND T-CELL DYSFUNCTION. THE OCCURRENCE OF GRANULOMATOUS INFLAMMATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH A WORSE PROGNOSIS COMPARED WITH COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY PATIENTS WITHOUT GRANULOMA. SUMMARY: THE PATHOGENESIS OF COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY INCLUDES DISTURBANCES OF THE ADAPTIVE AS WELL AS INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM. IDENTIFIED MONOGENIC DEFECTS ACCOUNT FOR ABOUT 10% OF CASES, LEAVING THE MAJORITY OF DEFECTS UNDEFINED AND CERTAINLY IN PART EPIGENETIC. TO COMBINE THE KNOWN ASPECTS OF THE PATHOGENESIS OF COMMON VARIABLE IMMUNODEFICIENCY TO A CONCLUSIVE PICTURE, THE CLINICAL AND IMMUNOLOGIC PHENOTYPING OF PATIENTS NEEDS TO BE STANDARDIZED.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
16 6296  49 THE PROSPECTS FOR A SIMPLIFIED AND INTERNATIONALLY HARMONIZED APPROACH TO THE DETECTION OF POSSIBLE HUMAN CARCINOGENS AND MUTAGENS. IT IS PROPOSED THAT THE MANY SETS OF REGULATORY GUIDELINES FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENICITY AND MUTAGENICITY SHOULD BE SIMPLIFIED AND HARMONIZED IN LIGHT OF CURRENT EXPERIMENTAL DATA. DATA ARE DISCUSSED WHICH ILLUSTRATE THAT AN ABSOLUTE DISTINCTION WOULD BE DRAWN BETWEEN ASSAYS CONDUCTED IN VITRO FROM THOSE IN VIVO, AND THAT THE GENOTOXICITY OF A CHEMICAL CAN BE ADEQUATELY DEFINED USING A COMBINATION OF THE SALMONELLA MUTATION ASSAY AND ONE FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS IN VITRO. IT IS SPECIFICALLY RECOMMENDED THAT ONCE A CHEMICAL HAS SHOWN A CLEAR POSITIVE RESPONSE IN VITRO, FURTHER SHORT-TERM ASSAYS SHOULD BE CONDUCTED IN VIVO; THIS AVOIDS CONSIDERING THE 'WEIGHT OF EVIDENCE' OF IN VITRO DATA, THE DANGERS OF WHICH ARE ILLUSTRATED. IT HAS NOW BEEN UNEQUIVOCALLY ESTABLISHED THAT NOT ALL IN VITRO GENOTOXINS PROVE CARCINOGENIC TO MAMMALS. IT IS THEREFORE RECOMMENDED THAT ALL NEW IN VITRO GENOTOXINS SHOULD BE ASSESSED IN VIVO USING THE MOUSE BONE MARROW MICRONUCLEUS ASSAY, AND IF A NEGATIVE RESPONSE IS OBSERVED, A LIVER GENOTOXICITY TEST. AT PRESENT AN ASSAY FOR THE INDUCTION OF UNSCHEDULED DNA SYNTHESIS (UDS) IN THE LIVER IS THE MOST WELL DEVELOPED FOR THIS PURPOSE. CURRENT DATA INDICATE THAT AN IN VITRO GENOTOXIN FOUND TO BE INACTIVE IN THESE TWO IN VIVO ASSAYS WILL BE NEITHER CARCINOGENIC NOR MUTAGENIC TO THE GERM CELLS OF MAMMALS. EQUALLY, GENOTOXICITY PRODUCED IN MAMMALS INDICATES A CARCINOGENIC AND MUTAGENIC POTENTIAL WHICH CAN USUALLY ONLY BE COUNTERED BY APPROPRIATE CHRONIC BIOASSAYS. THE USE OF SHORT-TERM IN VIVO ASSAYS IN THIS CRITICAL ROLE REQUIRES ATTENTION TO THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE DOSE-LEVELS AND ROUTES OF EXPOSURE - THESE ISSUES ARE DISCUSSED. THE ABOVE TESTING STRATEGY WILL NOT DETECT CERTAIN ANIMAL CARCINOGENS, SOME OF WHICH ARE SPECIFICALLY DISCUSSED. THESE CARCINOGENS HAVE BEEN VARIOUSLY REFERRED TO IN THE LITERATURE AS EPIGENETIC/NON-GENOTOXIC/HORMONAL/TOXIC/AMBIGUOUS OR AMBIVALENT CARCINOGENS. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT THEY PRESENT A MINOR POTENTIAL HAZARD TO MAN WHEN COMPARED WITH THAT OF GENOTOXIC CARCINOGENS AND THAT THEIR SHORT-TERM DETECTION CAN ONLY BE ACHIEVED BY THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW WHOLE MAMMAL ASSAYS EMPLOYING NON-GENETIC ENDPOINTS. THIS IS IN CONTRAST TO THE PRESENT TENDENCY TO EMPLOY ADDITIONAL GENOTOXICITY ASSAYS FOR THEIR DETECTION IN THE UNJUSTIFIED BELIEF THAT THEY POSSESS AN EXQUISITE SPECIFICITY OF GENOTOXIC ACTION. THIS ARTICLE REPRESENTS A PERSONAL VIEW, BUT THE TESTING STRATEGY PROPOSED IS BASED TO A LARGE EXTENT ON THE ORIGINAL THREE-TIER APPROACH OF BRIDGES.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)	1986	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
17 5211  37 PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS IN HUMAN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. THE EARLY STAGES OF HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS IN HUMAN CHRONIC LIVER DISEASES ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE EMERGENCE OF PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS OF WHICH SOME WILL EVENTUALLY DEVELOP INTO HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA (HCC). BASIC STUDIES ON THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS OF THESE PRENEOPLASTIC LESIONS MAY EVENTUALLY LEAD TO NEW THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES. CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL STUDIES ARE ALSO IMPORTANT IN ORDER TO DETERMINE OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF PATIENTS WITH A PRENEOPLASTIC LESION. THIS ARTICLE AIMS TO PROVIDE A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE CURRENT CONCEPTS OF PRENEOPLASTIC LESION IN CHRONIC LIVER DISEASES. THE MICROSCOPICAL SMALL-CELL DYSPLASTIC FOCUS IS THE SMALLEST MORPHOLOGICALLY RECOGNIZABLE PRECURSOR LESION OF HCC AND THEREFORE IS A LOGICAL TARGET OF STUDY TO ELUCIDATE THE EARLIEST EVENTS IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. IN CONTRAST, LARGE-CELL DYSPLASIA IS NOT A PRECURSOR LESION, BUT APPEARS TO BE OF CLINICAL VALUE BECAUSE OF ITS GOOD PREDICTIVE VALUE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF HCC. DYSPLASTIC NODULES (DNS) ARE MACROSCOPICALLY RECOGNIZABLE PRECURSOR LESIONS OF HCC AND HIGH-GRADE DNS (HGDNS) HAVE A RISK OF MALIGNANT TRANSFORMATION. DETECTION OF DNS AND CORRECT DIFFERENTIATION FROM SMALL HCC (<2 CM) IS SOMETIMES DIFFICULT, ESPECIALLY WHEN ONLY IMAGING TECHNIQUES ARE USED. ADDITIONAL CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL STUDIES ON IDENTIFICATION AND OPTIMAL TREATMENT OF DNS ARE NECESSARY. MOLECULAR STUDIES ON HGDNS AND SMALL HCCS MAY YIELD MUCH INFORMATION ON THE GENETIC MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE TRANSITION FROM SEVERE DYSPLASIA TO EARLY MALIGNANCY. IN CONTRAST, CURRENTLY AVAILABLE DATA INDICATE THAT (LARGE) REGENERATIVE NODULES DO NOT REPRESENT A DISTINCT STEP IN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. ANIMAL MODELS WILL BE HELPFUL IN THE FURTHER UNRAVELLING OF HUMAN HCC DEVELOPMENT, PROVIDED THAT STUDIES ARE PERFORMED ON MODELS THAT ARE GOOD REPRESENTATIVES OF HUMAN HEPATOCARCINOGENESIS. WE PROPOSE THREE CRITERIA BY WHICH GOOD MIMICKERS CAN BE IDENTIFIED.	2005	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
18    4  32 "MIX OF MICS"- PHENOTYPIC AND BIOLOGICAL HETEROGENEITY OF "MULTIPOTENT" MUSCLE INTERSTITIAL CELLS (MICS). THE CAPACITY OF ADULT SKELETAL MUSCLE FOR REGENERATION APPEARS TO BE LIMITED, WITH PROGRESSIVE IMPAIRMENT IN REPAIR EFFICIENCY OF INJURED MUSCLES OBSERVED IN CHRONIC MUSCULAR DISORDERS AND DURING AGING. WHILE SATELLITE CELLS, THE COMMITTED ADULT MUSCLE STEM CELLS, ARE THE MAIN DIRECT CELL SOURCE SUPPORTING THE REGENERATIVE POTENTIAL OF ADULT SKELETAL MUSCLES, THE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE CELL TYPES AND SIGNALS THAT CONSTITUTE THE FUNCTIONAL "NICHE" OF SATELLITE CELLS IS CURRENTLY THE OBJECT OF INTENSE INVESTIGATION. RECENT STUDIES HAVE IDENTIFIED A FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SATELLITE CELLS AND VARIOUS CELL TYPES LOCATED IN KEY ANATOMICAL POSITION, SUCH AS THE INTERSTITIUM OF SKELETAL MUSCLES. THIS HETEROGENEOUS POPULATION OF MUSCLE INTERSTITIAL CELLS (MICS) APPEARS TO RETAIN AN INTRINSIC MULTIPOTENCY WITHIN THE MESODERMAL LINEAGE, AND THEIR DIRECT OR INDIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO MYOFIBER TURNOVER, REPAIR AND DEGENERATION HAS BEEN SUGGESTED BY MANY STUDIES THAT WILL BE REVIEWED HERE. GIVEN THE EXISTING GAP OF KNOWLEDGE ON LINEAGE IDENTITY AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF MICS, THEIR DETAILED CHARACTERIZATION AT THE SINGLE CELL LEVEL HOLDS THE PROMISE TO PROVIDE KEY INSIGHT INTO THE COMPOSITION OF THIS HETEROGENEOUS POPULATION AND THE DYNAMIC TRANSITION THROUGH DISTINCT SUB-POPULATIONS IN HEALTHY, DISEASED AND AGING MUSCLES. THIS REVIEW PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW OF THE RESULTS OF VARIOUS STUDIES DESCRIBING THE PHENOTYPE AND THE FUNCTION OF CELLS ISOLATED FROM SKELETAL MUSCLE INTERSTITIUM, AND DISCUSSES THE IMPORTANCE OF SINGLE CELL TRANSCRIPTION PROFILING IN ORDER TO DECIPHER THE FUNCTIONAL AND PHENOTYPICAL HETEROGENEITY OF MUSCLE INTERSTITIAL CELLS (MICS).	2012	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
19 2059  27 EPIGENETIC CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION IN THE LUNG. EPIGENETICS IS TRADITIONALLY DEFINED AS THE STUDY OF HERITABLE CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION CAUSED BY MECHANISMS OTHER THAN CHANGES IN THE UNDERLYING DNA SEQUENCE. THERE ARE THREE MAIN CLASSES OF EPIGENETIC MARKS--DNA METHYLATION, MODIFICATIONS OF HISTONE TAILS, AND NONCODING RNAS--EACH OF WHICH MAY BE INFLUENCED BY THE ENVIRONMENT, DIET, DISEASES, AND AGEING. IMPORTANTLY, EPIGENETIC MARKS HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO INFLUENCE IMMUNE CELL MATURATION AND ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE RISK OF DEVELOPING VARIOUS FORMS OF CANCER, INCLUDING LUNG CANCER. MOREOVER, THERE IS EMERGING EVIDENCE THAT THESE EPIGENETIC MARKS AFFECT GENE EXPRESSION IN THE LUNG AND ARE ASSOCIATED WITH BENIGN LUNG DISEASES, SUCH AS ASTHMA, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE, AND INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES HAVE MADE IT FEASIBLE TO STUDY EPIGENETIC MARKS IN THE LUNG, AND IT IS ANTICIPATED THAT THIS KNOWLEDGE WILL ENHANCE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE DYNAMIC BIOLOGY IN THE LUNG AND LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES FOR OUR PATIENTS WITH LUNG DISEASE.	2011	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
20 6896  29 [TARGETED EPIGENETIC THERAPY OF CANCER. ACHIEVEMENTS AND PERSPECTIVES]. IN THIS REVIEW, WE PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL EPIGENETIC CHANGES OF NORMAL CELLS AND CANCER CELLS, AND EMPHASIZE THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND THE PERSPECTIVES OF CANCER EPIGENETIC THERAPY. CANCER EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS CORRESPOND FOREMOST TO HYPERMETHYLATION OF TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES PROMOTORS, GLOBAL DNA HYPOMETHYLATION, AND OVEREXPRESSION AND ACTIVITY OF HISTONE DEACETYLASES. THE PURPOSE OF EPIGENETIC THERAPY IS TO REVERT THE EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN CANCER CELLS AND OBTAIN THE "NORMAL EPIGENOME" RESTORATION. EPIGENETIC TARGETS IN CANCER THERAPY HAVE FOCUSED ON HDACS AND DNMTS INHIBITION. THE AZACITIDINE AND THE DECITABINE, THE VORINOSTAT AND THE ROMIDEPSIN WERE APPROVED BY US-FDA FOR TREATMENT OF MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROME, AND CUTANEOUS T-CELL LYMPHOMA, RESPECTIVELY. EPIGENETIC AND EPIGENOMIC CHANGES IN SINGLE OR MULTIPLE GENES HAVE SHOWED POTENTIAL IMPACT IN CANCER AS EARLY DETECTION, PROGNOSIS AND PREDICTIVE MARKS. THE EPIGENETIC REVOLUTION HAS ARRIVED FOR BIOLOGY. THE SIGNIFICANT PROGRESS IN EPIGENETIC STUDIES HAVE ALLOWED US, TO UNDERSTAND NEW LOOKS IN THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT, CANCER AND OTHER CHRONIC DISEASES. SPECIFIC MOLECULAR EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN DIFFERENT CANCER TYPES, GIVE US NEW STRATEGIES TO DESIGN IMPROVED CANCER THERAPY. THE CHALLENGE FOR EPIGENETIC INVESTIGATORS IS DESIGN MORE SPECIFIC EPIDRUGS WITH LESSER SIDE EFFECTS.	2012