1  168 76 ABNORMAL TRANSMETHYLATION/TRANSSULFURATION METABOLISM AND DNA HYPOMETHYLATION AMONG PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM. AN INTEGRATED METABOLIC PROFILE REFLECTS THE COMBINED INFLUENCE OF GENETIC, EPIGENETIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE CANDIDATE PATHWAY OF INTEREST. RECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT SOME AUTISTIC CHILDREN MAY HAVE REDUCED DETOXIFICATION CAPACITY AND MAY BE UNDER CHRONIC OXIDATIVE STRESS. BASED ON REPORTS OF ABNORMAL METHIONINE AND GLUTATHIONE METABOLISM IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN, IT WAS OF INTEREST TO EXAMINE THE SAME METABOLIC PROFILE IN THE PARENTS. THE RESULTS INDICATED THAT PARENTS SHARE SIMILAR METABOLIC DEFICITS IN METHYLATION CAPACITY AND GLUTATHIONE-DEPENDENT ANTIOXIDANT/DETOXIFICATION CAPACITY OBSERVED IN MANY AUTISTIC CHILDREN. STUDIES ARE UNDERWAY TO DETERMINE WHETHER THE ABNORMAL PROFILE IN PARENTS REFLECTS LINKED GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS IN THESE PATHWAYS OR WHETHER IT SIMPLY REFLECTS THE CHRONIC STRESS OF COPING WITH AN AUTISTIC CHILD.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
2 4496 29 MORE THAN GENES: THE ADVANCED FETAL PROGRAMMING HYPOTHESIS. MANY LINES OF DATA, INITIAL EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES AS WELL AS SUBSEQUENT EXTENSIVE EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES, INDICATE THAT EARLY-LIFE EVENTS PLAY A POWERFUL ROLE IN INFLUENCING LATER SUCEPTIBILITY TO CERTAIN CHRONIC DISEASES. SUCH EVENTS MIGHT BE OVER- OR UNDERNUTRITION, EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS, BUT ALSO CHANGES IN HORMONES, IN PARTICULAR STRESS HORMONES. TYPICALLY, THOSE EVENTS ARE TRIGGERED BY THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF THE MOTHER. HOWEVER, RECENT STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT PATERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL OR NUTRITIONAL FACTORS AFFECT THE PHENOTYPE OF THE OFFSPRING AS WELL. THE MATERNAL AND PATERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ACT ON THE PHENOTYPE OF THE OFFSPRING VIA EPIGENETIC MODIFICATION OF ITS GENOME. THE ADVANCED FETAL PROGRAMMING HYPOTHESIS PROPOSES AN ADDITIONAL NON-ENVIRONMENTALLY DRIVEN MECHANISM: MATERNAL AND ALSO PATERNAL GENES MAY INFLUENCE THE MATURATING SPERM, THE OOCYTE, AND LATER THE EMBRYO/FETUS, LEADING TO THEIR EPIGENETIC ALTERATION. THUS, THE OBSERVED PHENOTYPE OF THE OFFSPRING MAY BE ALTERED BY MATERNAL/PATERNAL GENES INDEPENDENT OF THE FETAL GENOME. MEANWHILE, SEVERAL INDEPENDENT ASSOCIATION STUDIES IN HUMANS DEALING WITH METABOLIC AND NEUROLOGICAL TRAITS ALSO SUGGEST THAT MATERNAL GENES MIGHT AFFECT THE OFFSPRING PHENOTYPE INDEPENDENT OF THE TRANSMISSION OF THAT PARTICULAR GENE TO THE OFFSPRING. CONSIDERING THE IMPLICATIONS OF THIS HYPOTHESIS, SOME CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM TRANSGENIC OR KNOCKOUT ANIMAL MODELS AND BASED ON THE CAUSALITY BETWEEN A GENETIC ALTERATION AND A PHENOTYPE, NEED TO BE CHALLENGED. POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT, DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPY OF HUMAN GENETIC DISEASES HAVE TO BE INVESTIGATED.	2014	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
3 6065 28 THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF CHRONIC PHYSICAL AGGRESSION: BIOLOGICAL PATHWAYS TRIGGERED BY EARLY LIFE ADVERSITY. LONGITUDINAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES WITH BIRTH COHORTS HAVE SHOWN THAT PHYSICAL AGGRESSION IN HUMANS DOES NOT APPEAR SUDDENLY IN ADOLESCENCE AS COMMONLY THOUGHT. IN FACT, PHYSICALLY AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR IS OBSERVED AS EARLY AS 12 MONTHS AFTER BIRTH, ITS FREQUENCY PEAKS AROUND 2-4 YEARS OF AGE AND DECREASES IN FREQUENCY UNTIL EARLY ADULTHOOD. HOWEVER, A MINORITY OF CHILDREN (3-7%) MAINTAIN A HIGH FREQUENCY OF PHYSICAL AGGRESSION FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE AND DEVELOP SERIOUS SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS DURING ADULTHOOD. GENETIC FACTORS AND EARLY SOCIAL EXPERIENCES, AS WELL AS THEIR INTERACTION, HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR. HOWEVER, THE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING THESE ASSOCIATIONS ARE JUST BEGINNING TO BE UNCOVERED. RECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS ARE RESPONSIVE TO ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTS AND COULD BE INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC AGGRESSION. USING BOTH GENE CANDIDATE AND GENOMIC APPROACHES, RECENT STUDIES HAVE IDENTIFIED EPIGENETIC MARKS, SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION ALTERATIONS IN GENES INVOLVED IN THE STRESS RESPONSE AND THE SEROTONIN AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS TO BE PARTLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE LONG-LASTING EFFECTS OF EARLY ADVERSITY. FURTHER LONGITUDINAL STUDIES WITH BIOLOGICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENTS FROM BIRTH ONWARDS ARE NEEDED TO ELUCIDATE THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS THAT LEADS TO THESE LONG-LASTING EPIGENETIC MARKS ASSOCIATED WITH EARLY ADVERSITY AND AGGRESSION.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
4 4767 23 NUCLEAR AND MITOCHONDRIAL DNA ALTERATIONS IN NEWBORNS WITH PRENATAL EXPOSURE TO CIGARETTE SMOKE. NEWBORNS EXPOSED TO MATERNAL CIGARETTE SMOKE (CS) IN UTERO HAVE AN INCREASED RISK OF DEVELOPING CHRONIC DISEASES, CANCER, AND ACQUIRING DECREASED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN ADULTHOOD. ALTHOUGH THE LITERATURE REPORTS MANY DELETERIOUS EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH MATERNAL CIGARETTE SMOKING ON THE FETUS, THE MOLECULAR ALTERATIONS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTION ARE NOT YET CLEAR. SMOKING MAY ACT DIRECTLY ON NUCLEAR DNA BY INDUCING MUTATIONS OR EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS. RECENT STUDIES ALSO INDICATE THAT SMOKING MAY ACT ON MITOCHONDRIAL DNA BY INDUCING A CHANGE IN THE NUMBER OF COPIES TO MAKE UP FOR THE DAMAGE CAUSED BY SMOKING ON THE RESPIRATORY CHAIN AND LACK OF ENERGY. IN ADDITION, INDIVIDUAL GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY PLAYS A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN DETERMINING THE EFFECTS OF SMOKING DURING DEVELOPMENT. FURTHERMORE, PRIOR EXPOSURE OF PATERNAL AND MATERNAL GAMETES TO CIGARETTE SMOKE MAY AFFECT THE HEALTH OF THE DEVELOPING INDIVIDUAL, NOT ONLY THE IN UTERO EXPOSURE. THIS REVIEW EXAMINES THE GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN NUCLEAR AND MITOCHONDRIAL DNA ASSOCIATED WITH SMOKE EXPOSURE DURING THE MOST SENSITIVE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT (PRIOR TO CONCEPTION, PRENATAL AND EARLY POSTNATAL) AND ASSESSES HOW SUCH CHANGES MAY HAVE CONSEQUENCES FOR BOTH FETAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.	2015	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
5 1371 24 DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF HEALTH AND DISEASE: NEW INSIGHTS. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT SMALL CHANGES IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ENVIRONMENT CAN INDUCE PHENOTYPIC CHANGES AFFECTING AN INDIVIDUAL'S RESPONSES TO THEIR LATER ENVIRONMENT. THESE MAY ALTER THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE SUCH AS METABOLIC SYNDROME OR CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. RECENT RESEARCH SHOWS THAT ANIMALS EXPOSED TO SUCH A MISMATCH BETWEEN PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT DEVELOP OBESITY, REDUCED ACTIVITY, LEPTIN AND INSULIN RESISTANCE, ELEVATED BLOOD PRESSURE AND VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION. EPIGENETIC PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED IN SUCH EFFECTS, TARGETED TO PROMOTER REGIONS OF SPECIFIC GENES IN SPECIFIC TISSUES. SUCH FINE CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION SUGGESTS THAT THE MECHANISMS HAVE BEEN RETAINED THROUGH EVOLUTION THROUGH THEIR ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE, RATHER THAN REPRESENTING EXTREME EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISRUPTION AKIN TO TERATOGENESIS. THERE MAY BE ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CUE INDUCING A PHENOTYPIC CHANGE IN GENERATIONS BEYOND THE IMMEDIATE PREGNANCY, AND A RANGE OF DATA THAT SUPPORT THIS CONCEPT. IN ANIMALS, EPIGENETIC EFFECTS SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION CAN BE PASSED TO SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS, INCLUDING ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS, MAY INDUCE GREATER RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE, EVEN AT LOW EXPOSURE LEVELS, IF THEY AFFECT SUCH NORMAL DEVELOPMENTAL EPIGENETIC PROCESSES. APPROPRIATE INTERVENTIONS MAY HAVE LONG-TERM MULTIGENERATIONAL EFFECTS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE.	2008	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
6 6133 26 THE EPIGENETIC ROLE OF VITAMIN C IN NEURODEVELOPMENT. THE MATERNAL DIET DURING PREGNANCY IS A KEY DETERMINANT OF OFFSPRING HEALTH. EARLY STUDIES HAVE LINKED POOR MATERNAL NUTRITION DURING GESTATION WITH A PROPENSITY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC CONDITIONS IN OFFSPRING. THESE CONDITIONS INCLUDE CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, TYPE 2 DIABETES AND EVEN COMPROMISED MENTAL HEALTH. WHILE MULTIPLE FACTORS MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THESE OUTCOMES, DISTURBED EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING DURING EARLY DEVELOPMENT IS ONE POTENTIAL BIOLOGICAL MECHANISM. THE EPIGENOME IS PROGRAMMED PRIMARILY IN UTERO, AND DURING THIS TIME, THE DEVELOPING FETUS IS HIGHLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS SUCH AS NUTRITIONAL INSULTS. DURING NEURODEVELOPMENT, EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING COORDINATES THE FORMATION OF PRIMITIVE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURES, NEUROGENESIS, AND NEUROPLASTICITY. DYSREGULATED EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING HAS BEEN IMPLICATED IN THE AETIOLOGY OF SEVERAL NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS SUCH AS TATTON-BROWN-RAHMAN SYNDROME. ACCORDINGLY, THERE IS GREAT INTEREST IN DETERMINING HOW MATERNAL NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY IN PREGNANCY MIGHT AFFECT THE EPIGENETIC STATUS OF OFFSPRING, AND HOW SUCH INFLUENCES MAY PRESENT PHENOTYPICALLY. IN RECENT YEARS, A NUMBER OF EPIGENETIC ENZYMES THAT ARE ACTIVE DURING EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT HAVE BEEN FOUND TO REQUIRE VITAMIN C AS A COFACTOR. THESE ENZYMES INCLUDE THE TEN-ELEVEN TRANSLOCATION METHYLCYTOSINE DIOXYGENASES (TETS) AND THE JUMONJI C DOMAIN-CONTAINING HISTONE LYSINE DEMETHYLASES THAT CATALYSE THE OXIDATIVE REMOVAL OF METHYL GROUPS ON CYTOSINES AND HISTONE LYSINE RESIDUES, RESPECTIVELY. THESE ENZYMES ARE INTEGRAL TO EPIGENETIC REGULATION AND HAVE FUNDAMENTAL ROLES IN CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION, THE MAINTENANCE OF PLURIPOTENCY AND DEVELOPMENT. THE DEPENDENCE OF THESE ENZYMES ON VITAMIN C FOR OPTIMAL CATALYTIC ACTIVITY ILLUSTRATES A POTENTIALLY CRITICAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE NUTRIENT DURING MAMMALIAN DEVELOPMENT. THESE INSIGHTS ALSO HIGHLIGHT A POTENTIAL RISK ASSOCIATED WITH VITAMIN C INSUFFICIENCY DURING PREGNANCY. THE LINK BETWEEN VITAMIN C INSUFFICIENCY AND DEVELOPMENT IS PARTICULARLY APPARENT IN THE CONTEXT OF NEURODEVELOPMENT AND HIGH VITAMIN C CONCENTRATIONS IN THE BRAIN ARE INDICATIVE OF IMPORTANT FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS IN THIS ORGAN. ACCORDINGLY, THIS REVIEW CONSIDERS THE EVIDENCE FOR THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF MATERNAL VITAMIN C STATUS ON NEURODEVELOPMENTAL EPIGENETICS.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
7 6781 31 [BREATHING: AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH - PART III]. THE THIRD PART OF THE DGP STATEMENT INTRODUCES THE CURRENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE ON LESS STUDIED HEALTH OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR POLLUTION: THE NEGATIVE IMPACT ON METABOLISM LEADING TO IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE AND DIABETES AS WELL AS CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND DELAYED COGNITIVE FUNCTION IN CHILDREN. FURTHERMORE, PRENATAL EXPOSURE AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON MOTHER AND CHILD ARE ADDRESSED. FINALLY, THE CURRENTLY DISCUSSED BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS UNDERLYING VARIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ARE DESCRIBED.DIFFERING, BUT OFTEN COMPLEMENTARY BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS CREATE THE BASIS FOR THE DIVERSE HEALTH OUTCOMES CAUSED BY AIR POLLUTION. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND A SUBCLINICAL INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IN THE LUNGS AND ON A SYSTEMIC LEVEL ("LOW-GRADE SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION") ARE CONSIDERED TO BE KEY MECHANISMS. THEY PROMOTE SECONDARY ALTERATIONS IN THE BODY, SUCH AS VASCULAR OR METABOLIC PROCESSES, AND MAY ALSO RESULT IN THE CURRENTLY STUDIED EPIGENETIC PHENOMENA OR NEUROINFLAMMATION. IN THIS CONTEXT, THE HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLUBLE PARTICULATE MATTER AND THE ROLE OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES TRANSLOCATED ACROSS BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES INTO BLOOD VESSEL AND TRANSPORTED VIA THE CIRCULATION TO SECONDARY TARGET ORGANS, SUCH AS LIVER, BRAIN OR THE FETUS, ARE INTENSIVELY DISCUSSED.DIABETES IS ONE OF THE LEADING CHRONIC DISEASES WORLDWIDE, WITH A PREVALENCE OF ALMOST 14 % IN GERMANY. ALTHOUGH LIFESTYLE FACTORS ARE THE MAIN CAUSES, CURRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT LONG-TERM EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION MAY ADDITIONALLY INCREASE THE RISK FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES. SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR A CAUSAL ROLE OF AIR POLLUTION IS PROVIDED BY STUDIES ADDRESSING THE REGULATION OF THE BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS IN METABOLICALLY HEALTHY PARTICIPANTS, INSULIN SENSITIVITY, OR PREGNANCY-RELATED DIABETES. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES PROVIDE FURTHER SUPPORT FOR PLAUSIBLE BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS. HOWEVER, PROSPECTIVE STUDIES ARE NEEDED TO GAIN MORE EVIDENCE, TAKING MULTIPLE LIFESTYLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SUCH AS GREEN SPACE AND NOISE, AND AN IMPROVED INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT INTO ACCOUNT.THE AGING POPULATION HAS AN INCREASED RISK OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES. FIRST STUDIES POINT TOWARDS A CONTRIBUTION OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION, SPECIFICALLY BY PARTICULATE MATTER. SEVERAL STUDIES REPORT ITS ASSOCIATION WITH DECREASED NEUROCOGNITIVE CAPACITY OR AN INCREASED PREVALENCE OF DEMENTIA OR ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE IN ADULTS. HOWEVER, THE STUDIES ARE INHOMOGENEOUS REGARDING DESIGN, EXPOSURE AND OUTCOME, LEADING TO INCONSISTENT RESULTS. WITH RESPECT TO THE INFLUENCE ON NEUROCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN, FIRST STUDIES SUGGEST AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION, E. G. AT SCHOOL, AND DELAYED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.EVEN THOUGH THE EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL ENDPOINTS DURING PREGNANCY IS STILL HETEROGENEOUS, THE STUDIES GENERALLY POINT TOWARDS AN ADVERSE IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL AND FETAL ORGANISMS. THE STRONGEST EVIDENCE EXISTS FOR LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, WITH SMALL EFFECT SIZES OF ONLY SOME GRAMS, AND FOR A HIGHER INCIDENCE OF REDUCED BIRTH WEIGHT (< 2500 G). AN INCREASED RISK FOR GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION AND PREECLAMPSIA UNDERSCORES THE POSSIBLE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION ON THE MATERNAL ORGANISM. HOWEVER, THE CURRENT BODY OF EVIDENCE DOES NOT YET ALLOW A FINAL CONCLUSION ON THE INFLUENCE OF INTRAUTERINE EXPOSURE TO AIR POLLUTION REGARDING EARLY CHILDHOOD LUNG FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGIES, PARTICULARLY IN LIGHT OF THE FACT THAT IT IS HARD TO DISTINGUISH IN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES BETWEEN THE EFFECTS OF PRE- AND POSTNATAL EXPOSURE.	2019	

8 3848 18 IS EPIGENETICS AN IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND ADULT DISEASE? BACKGROUND: EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS PROVIDE ONE POTENTIAL EXPLANATION FOR HOW ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES IN EARLY LIFE CAUSE LONG-TERM CHANGES IN CHRONIC DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY. WHEREAS EPIGENETIC DYSREGULATION IS INCREASINGLY IMPLICATED IN VARIOUS RARE DEVELOPMENTAL SYNDROMES AND CANCER, THE ROLE OF EPIGENETICS IN COMPLEX CHRONIC DISEASES, SUCH AS CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, TYPE 2 DIABETES AND OBESITY, REMAINS LARGELY UNCHARACTERIZED. EXTENSIVE WORK IN ANIMAL MODELS IS REQUIRED TO DEVELOP SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES THAT CAN BE PRACTICABLY TESTED IN HUMANS. ANIMAL MODELS: WE HAVE DEVELOPED A MOUSE MODEL SHOWING THAT METHYL DONOR SUPPLEMENTATION PREVENTS TRANSGENERATIONAL AMPLIFICATION OF OBESITY, SUGGESTING A ROLE FOR DNA METHYLATION IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL ESTABLISHMENT OF BODY WEIGHT REGULATION. CONCLUSIONS: COUPLING SUCH MODELS WITH RECENTLY DEVELOPED EPIGENOMIC TECHNOLOGIES SHOULD ULTIMATELY ENABLE US TO DETERMINE IF EPIGENETICS IS AN IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN EARLY LIFE EVENTS AND ADULT DISEASE.	2009	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
9 3582 19 IMPACT OF PRENATAL AND EARLY LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES ON NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. THE GLOBAL BURDEN AND PATTERN OF DISEASE HAS CHANGED IN RECENT DECADES, WITH FEWER EARLY CHILDHOOD DEATHS AND LONGER LIVES COMPLICATED BY CHRONIC DISEASE. DISRUPTION OF NORMAL HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT BY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES, ESPECIALLY DURING FOETAL DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY POSTNATAL LIFE INCREASE LIFE-LONG RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE. THE DEVELOPMENTAL TIMING AND METHOD OF ADVERSE EXPOSURE DETERMINES THE LIKELY IMPACT ON HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT. WHILE MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE STRUCTURALLY AND FUNCTIONALLY MATURE AT BIRTH, THE CNS, RESPIRATORY AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS ARE NOT AND UNDERGO PROLONGED PERIODS OF POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. AS SUCH, THESE ORGAN SYSTEMS ARE VULNERABLE TO ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BOTH PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES. WHILE THE PRECISE MECHANISMS UNDERLYING CHRONIC DISEASE ARE UNKNOWN, EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS AND THE INDUCTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS ARE LIKELY TO BE INVOLVED. AN UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES IS NECESSARY TO DEVELOP MITIGATION STRATEGIES AIMED AT REDUCING CHRONIC DISEASE PREVALENCE.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            
10 5164 22 PRECLINICAL AND CLINICAL EVIDENCE OF DNA METHYLATION CHANGES IN RESPONSE TO TRAUMA AND CHRONIC STRESS. EXPOSURE TO CHRONIC STRESS, EITHER REPEATED SEVERE ACUTE OR MODERATE SUSTAINED STRESS, IS ONE OF THE STRONGEST RISK FACTORS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES SUCH AS POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER AND DEPRESSION. CHRONIC STRESS IS LINKED WITH SEVERAL LASTING BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES, PARTICULARLY TO THE STRESS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM BUT ALSO AFFECTING INTERMEDIATE PHENOTYPES SUCH AS BRAIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, IMMUNE FUNCTION, AND BEHAVIOR. ALTHOUGH GENETIC PREDISPOSITION CONFERS A PROPORTION OF THE RISK, THE MOST RELEVANT MOLECULAR MECHANISMS DETERMINING THOSE SUSCEPTIBLE AND RESILIENT TO THE EFFECTS OF STRESS AND TRAUMA MAY BE EPIGENETIC. EPIGENETICS REFERS TO THE MECHANISMS THAT REGULATE GENOMIC INFORMATION BY DYNAMICALLY CHANGING THE PATTERNS OF TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION OF GENES. MOUNTING EVIDENCE FROM PRECLINICAL RODENT AND CLINICAL POPULATION STUDIES STRONGLY SUPPORT THAT EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS CAN OCCUR IN RESPONSE TO TRAUMATIC AND CHRONIC STRESS. HERE, WE DISCUSS THIS LITERATURE EXAMINING STRESS-INDUCED EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN PRECLINICAL MODELS AND CLINICAL COHORTS OF STRESS AND TRAUMA OCCURRING EARLY IN LIFE OR IN ADULTHOOD. WE HIGHLIGHT THAT A COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TIMING OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS AND GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS LIKELY MEDIATE THE RESPONSE TO CHRONIC STRESS OVER TIME, AND THAT A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF EPIGENETIC CHANGES IS NEEDED BY FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS IN LONGITUDINAL AND POSTMORTEM BRAIN CLINICAL COHORTS.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
11 2159 18 EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IMPACTED BY CHRONIC STRESS ACROSS THE RODENT LIFESPAN. EXPOSURES TO STRESS AT ALL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT CAN LEAD TO LONG-TERM BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS, IN PART THROUGH CHANGES IN THE EPIGENOME. THIS REVIEW DESCRIBES RODENT RESEARCH SUGGESTING THAT STRESS IN PRENATAL, POSTNATAL, ADOLESCENT AND ADULT STAGES LEADS TO LONG-TERM CHANGES IN EPIGENETIC REGULATION IN THE BRAIN WHICH HAVE CAUSAL IMPACTS ON RODENT BEHAVIOUR. WE FOCUS ON STRESS-INDUCED EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT HAVE BEEN LINKED TO BEHAVIOURAL DEFICITS INCLUDING POOR LEARNING AND MEMORY, AND INCREASED ANXIETY-LIKE AND DEPRESSIVE-LIKE BEHAVIOURS. INTERESTINGLY, ASPECTS OF THESE STRESS-INDUCED BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES CAN BE TRANSMITTED TO OFFSPRING ACROSS SEVERAL GENERATIONS, A PHENOMENON THAT HAS BEEN PROPOSED TO RESULT VIA EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS IN THE GERMLINE. HERE, WE ALSO DISCUSS EVIDENCE FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL IMPACT OF STRESS ON THE EPIGENOME IN MALES AND FEMALES, CONSCIOUS OF THE FACT THAT THE MAJORITY OF PUBLISHED STUDIES HAVE ONLY INVESTIGATED MALES. THIS HAS LED TO A LIMITED PICTURE OF THE EPIGENETIC IMPACT OF STRESS, HIGHLIGHTING THE NEED FOR FUTURE STUDIES TO INVESTIGATE FEMALES AS WELL AS MALES.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
12  679 14 BRAIN FOODS - THE ROLE OF DIET IN BRAIN PERFORMANCE AND HEALTH. THE PERFORMANCE OF THE HUMAN BRAIN IS BASED ON AN INTERPLAY BETWEEN THE INHERITED GENOTYPE AND EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, INCLUDING DIET. FOOD AND NUTRITION, ESSENTIAL IN MAINTENANCE OF BRAIN PERFORMANCE, ALSO AID IN PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF MENTAL DISORDERS. BOTH THE OVERALL COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN DIET AND SPECIFIC DIETARY COMPONENTS HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO HAVE AN IMPACT ON BRAIN FUNCTION IN VARIOUS EXPERIMENTAL MODELS AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES. THIS NARRATIVE REVIEW PROVIDES AN OVERVIEW OF THE ROLE OF DIET IN 5 KEY AREAS OF BRAIN FUNCTION RELATED TO MENTAL HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE, INCLUDING: (1) BRAIN DEVELOPMENT, (2) SIGNALING NETWORKS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS IN THE BRAIN, (3) COGNITION AND MEMORY, (4) THE BALANCE BETWEEN PROTEIN FORMATION AND DEGRADATION, AND (5) DETERIORATIVE EFFECTS DUE TO CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES. FINALLY, THE ROLE OF DIET IN EPIGENETIC REGULATION OF BRAIN PHYSIOLOGY IS DISCUSSED.	2021	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
13 4626 25 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS: EPIGENETICS AS AN UNDERLYING MECHANISM. THE INCREASING PREVALENCE OF NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS, ESPECIALLY AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS (ASD) AND ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD), CALLS FOR MORE RESEARCH INTO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ETIOLOGIC AND RISK FACTORS. THE DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGIN OF HEALTH AND DISEASE (DOHAD) HYPOTHESIZES THAT THE ENVIRONMENT DURING FETAL AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT AFFECTS THE RISK FOR MANY CHRONIC DISEASES IN LATER STAGES OF LIFE, INCLUDING NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. EPIGENETICS, A TERM DESCRIBING MECHANISMS THAT CAUSE CHANGES IN THE CHROMOSOME STATE WITHOUT AFFECTING DNA SEQUENCES, IS SUGGESTED TO BE THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM, ACCORDING TO THE DOHAD HYPOTHESIS. MOREOVER, MANY NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS ARE ALSO RELATED TO EPIGENETIC ABNORMALITIES. EXPERIMENTAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES SUGGEST THAT EXPOSURE TO PRENATAL ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS IS ASSOCIATED WITH NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS. IN ADDITION, THERE IS ALSO EVIDENCE THAT ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS CAN RESULT IN EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS, NOTABLY DNA METHYLATION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE FIRST FOCUS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS, IN PARTICULAR MATERNAL SMOKING, PLASTIC-DERIVED CHEMICALS (BISPHENOL A AND PHTHALATES), PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS, AND HEAVY METALS. WE THEN REVIEW STUDIES SHOWING THE EPIGENETIC EFFECTS OF THOSE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN HUMANS THAT MAY AFFECT NORMAL NEURODEVELOPMENT.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
14 2021 20 EPIGENETIC CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRESSORS AND SUICIDE. STRESS IS ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS EPIGENETIC CHANGES. SOME STRESS-INDUCED EPIGENETIC CHANGES ARE HIGHLY DYNAMIC, WHEREAS OTHERS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LASTING MARKS ON THE EPIGENOME. IN OUR STUDY, A COMPREHENSIVE NARRATIVE REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE WAS PERFORMED BY INVESTIGATING THE EPIGENETIC CHANGES THAT OCCUR WITH ACUTE STRESS, CHRONIC STRESS, EARLY CHILDHOOD STRESS, AND TRAUMATIC STRESS EXPOSURES, ALONG WITH EXAMINING THOSE OBSERVED IN POST-MORTEM BRAINS OR BLOOD SAMPLES OF SUICIDE COMPLETERS AND ATTEMPTERS. IN ADDITION, THE TRANSGENERATIONAL EFFECTS OF THESE CHANGES ARE REPORTED. FOR ALL TYPES OF STRESS STUDIES EXAMINED, THE GENES NR3C1, OXTR, SLC6A4, AND BDNF REPRODUCIBLY SHOWED EPIGENETIC CHANGES, WITH SOME MODIFICATIONS OBSERVED TO BE PASSED DOWN TO SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS FOLLOWING STRESS EXPOSURES. THE AFOREMENTIONED GENES ARE KNOWN TO BE INVOLVED IN NEURONAL DEVELOPMENT AND HORMONAL REGULATION AND ARE ALL ASSOCIATED WITH SUSCEPTIBILITY TO MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS INCLUDING DEPRESSION, ANXIETY, PERSONALITY DISORDERS, AND PTSD (POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER). FURTHER RESEARCH IS WARRANTED IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE SCOPE OF EPIGENETIC ACTIONABLE TARGETS IN INDIVIDUALS SUFFERING FROM THE LONG-LASTING EFFECTS OF STRESSFUL EXPERIENCES.	2023	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
15 4942 23 PATERNAL OBESITY: HOW BAD IS IT FOR SPERM QUALITY AND PROGENY HEALTH? THERE IS SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE THAT PATERNAL OBESITY IS ASSOCIATED NOT ONLY WITH AN INCREASED INCIDENCE OF INFERTILITY, BUT ALSO WITH AN INCREASED RISK OF METABOLIC DISTURBANCE IN ADULT OFFSPRING. APPARENTLY, SEVERAL MECHANISMS MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE SPERM QUALITY ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH PATERNAL OBESITY, SUCH AS PHYSIOLOGICAL/HORMONAL ALTERATIONS, OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS. ALONG THESE LINES, MODIFICATIONS OF HORMONAL PROFILES NAMELY REDUCED ANDROGEN LEVELS AND ELEVATED ESTROGEN LEVELS, WERE FOUND ASSOCIATED WITH LOWER SPERM CONCENTRATION AND SEMINAL VOLUME. ADDITIONALLY, OXIDATIVE STRESS IN TESTIS MAY INDUCE AN INCREASE OF THE PERCENTAGE OF SPERM WITH DNA FRAGMENTATION. THE LATTER, RELATE TO OTHER PECULIARITIES SUCH AS ALTERATION OF THE EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT, INCREASED RISK OF MISCARRIAGE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHRONIC MORBIDITY IN THE OFFSPRING, INCLUDING CHILDHOOD CANCERS. UNDOUBTEDLY, EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS (IE, DNA METHYLATION, CHROMATIN MODIFICATIONS, AND SMALL RNA DEREGULATION) OF SPERM RELATED TO PATERNAL OBESITY AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON THE PROGENY ARE POORLY UNDERSTOOD DETERMINANTS OF PATERNAL OBESITY-INDUCED TRANSMISSION. IN THIS REVIEW, WE SUMMARIZE AND DISCUSS THE DATA AVAILABLE IN THE LITERATURE REGARDING THE BIOLOGICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND MOLECULAR CONSEQUENCES OF PATERNAL OBESITY ON MALE FERTILITY POTENTIAL AND ULTIMATELY PROGENY HEALTH.	2017	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
16  848 23 CHILDHOOD TRAUMA, THE STRESS RESPONSE AND METABOLIC SYNDROME: A FOCUS ON DNA METHYLATION. CHILDHOOD TRAUMA (CT) IS WELL ESTABLISHED AS A POTENT RISK FACTOR FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL DISORDERS. HOWEVER, THE POTENTIAL OF ADVERSE EARLY EXPERIENCES TO EXERT CHRONIC AND PROFOUND EFFECTS ON PHYSICAL HEALTH, INCLUDING ABERRANT METABOLIC PHENOTYPES, HAS ONLY BEEN MORE RECENTLY EXPLORED. AMONG THESE CONSEQUENCES IS METABOLIC SYNDROME (METS), WHICH IS CHARACTERISED BY AT LEAST THREE OF FIVE RELATED CARDIOMETABOLIC TRAITS: HYPERTENSION, INSULIN RESISTANCE/HYPERGLYCAEMIA, RAISED TRIGLYCERIDES, LOW HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN AND CENTRAL OBESITY. THE DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF CT ON HEALTH OUTCOMES MAY BE PARTIALLY ATTRIBUTABLE TO DYSREGULATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL (HPA) AXIS, WHICH COORDINATES THE RESPONSE TO STRESS, AND THE CONSEQUENT FOSTERING OF A PRO-INFLAMMATORY ENVIRONMENT. EPIGENETIC TAGS, SUCH AS DNA METHYLATION, WHICH ARE SENSITIVE TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES PROVIDE A MEANS WHEREBY THE EFFECTS OF CT CAN BE BIOLOGICALLY EMBEDDED AND PERSIST INTO ADULTHOOD TO AFFECT HEALTH AND WELL-BEING. THE METHYLOME REGULATES THE TRANSCRIPTION OF GENES INVOLVED IN THE STRESS RESPONSE, METABOLISM AND INFLAMMATION. THIS NARRATIVE REVIEW EXAMINES THE EVIDENCE FOR DNA METHYLATION IN CT AND METS IN ORDER TO IDENTIFY SHARED NEUROENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE CORRELATES THAT MAY MEDIATE THE INCREASED RISK OF METS FOLLOWING CT EXPOSURE. OUR REVIEW SPECIFICALLY HIGHLIGHTS DIFFERENTIAL METHYLATION OF FKBP5, THE GENE THAT ENCODES FK506-BINDING PROTEIN 51 AND HAS PLEIOTROPIC EFFECTS ON STRESS RESPONDING, INFLAMMATION AND ENERGY METABOLISM, AS A CENTRAL CANDIDATE TO UNDERSTAND THE MOLECULAR AETIOLOGY UNDERLYING CT-ASSOCIATED METS RISK.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
17 1361 26 DEVELOPMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF TRACE MINERAL DEFICIENCIES IN RODENTS: ACUTE AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS. APPROXIMATELY 3% OF INFANTS BORN HAVE AT LEAST ONE SERIOUS CONGENITAL MALFORMATION. IN THE U.S., AN AVERAGE OF 10 INFANTS PER THOUSAND DIE BEFORE 1 Y OF LIFE; ABOUT HALF OF THESE DEATHS CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO BIRTH DEFECTS, LOW BIRTH WEIGHT OR PREMATURITY. ALTHOUGH THE CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENTAL ABNORMALITIES ARE CLEARLY MULTIFACTORIAL IN NATURE, WE SUGGEST THAT A COMMON FACTOR CONTRIBUTING TO THE OCCURRENCE OF DEVELOPMENTAL ABNORMALITIES IS SUBOPTIMAL MINERAL NUTRITION DURING EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT. USING ZINC AND COPPER AS EXAMPLES, EVIDENCE IS PRESENTED THAT NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES CAN RAPIDLY AFFECT THE DEVELOPING CONCEPTUS AND RESULT IN GROSS STRUCTURAL ABNORMALITIES. DEFICITS OF ZINC OR COPPER CAN RESULT IN RAPID CHANGES IN CELLULAR REDOX BALANCE, TISSUE OXIDATIVE STRESS, INAPPROPRIATE PATTERNS OF CELL DEATH, ALTERATIONS IN THE MIGRATION OF NEURAL CREST CELLS AND CHANGES IN THE EXPRESSION OF KEY PATTERNING GENES. IN ADDITION TO WELL-RECOGNIZED MALFORMATIONS, MINERAL DEFICIENCIES DURING PERINATAL DEVELOPMENT CAN RESULT IN BEHAVIORAL, IMMUNOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL ABNORMALITIES THAT PERSIST INTO ADULTHOOD. ALTHOUGH THESE PERSISTENT DEFECTS CAN IN PART BE ATTRIBUTED TO SUBTLE MORPHOLOGICAL ABNORMALITIES, IN OTHER CASES THEY MAY BE SECONDARY TO EPIGENETIC OR DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN DNA METHYLATION PATTERNS. EPIGENETIC DEFECTS COMBINED WITH SUBTLE MORPHOLOGICAL ABNORMALITIES CAN INFLUENCE AN INDIVIDUAL'S RISK FOR CERTAIN CHRONIC DISEASES AND THUS INFLUENCE HIS OR HER RISK FOR MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY LATER IN LIFE.	2003	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
18 2677 18 EVALUATING THE CHALLENGES AND REPRODUCIBILITY OF STUDIES INVESTIGATING DNA METHYLATION SIGNATURES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS. PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS CAN INCREASE THE RISK OF A WIDE RANGE OF NEGATIVE HEALTH OUTCOMES. STUDIES HAVE BEEN COMPLETED TO DETERMINE IF DNA METHYLATION CHANGES OCCUR IN THE HUMAN BRAIN BECAUSE OF STRESS AND ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LONG-TERM EFFECTS AND DISEASE, BUT RESULTS HAVE BEEN INCONSISTENT. HUMAN CANDIDATE GENE STUDIES (150) AND EPIGENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES (67) WERE SYSTEMATICALLY EVALUATED TO ASSESS HOW DNA METHYLATION IS IMPACTED BY STRESS DURING THE PRENATAL PERIOD, EARLY CHILDHOOD AND ADULTHOOD. THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN DNA METHYLATION OF NR3C1 EXON 1F AND CHILD MALTREATMENT AND EARLY LIFE ADVERSITY WAS WELL DEMONSTRATED, BUT OTHER GENES DID NOT EXHIBIT A CLEAR ASSOCIATION. THE REPRODUCIBILITY OF INDIVIDUAL CPG SITES IN EPIGENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES WAS ALSO POOR. HOWEVER, BIOLOGICAL PATHWAYS, INCLUDING STRESS RESPONSE, BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND IMMUNITY, HAVE BEEN CONSISTENTLY IDENTIFIED ACROSS DIFFERENT STRESSORS THROUGHOUT THE LIFE SPAN. FUTURE STUDIES WOULD BENEFIT FROM THE INCREASED SAMPLE SIZE, LONGITUDINAL DESIGN, STANDARDIZED METHODOLOGY, OPTIMAL QUALITY CONTROL, AND IMPROVED STATISTICAL PROCEDURES.	2022	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      
19 1765 23 EARLY-LIFE ADVERSITY-INDUCED LONG-TERM EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING ASSOCIATED WITH EARLY ONSET OF CHRONIC PHYSICAL AGGRESSION: STUDIES IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS. OBJECTIVES: TO EXAMINE WHETHER CHRONIC PHYSICAL AGGRESSION (CPA) IN ADULTHOOD CAN BE EPIGENETICALLY PROGRAMMED EARLY IN LIFE DUE TO EXPOSURE TO EARLY-LIFE ADVERSITY. METHODS: LITERATURE SEARCH OF PUBLIC DATABASES SUCH AS PUBMED/MEDLINE AND SCOPUS. RESULTS: CHILDREN/ADOLESCENTS SUSCEPTIBLE FOR CPA AND EXPOSED TO EARLY-LIFE ABUSE FAIL TO EFFICIENTLY COPE WITH STRESS THAT IN TURN RESULTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CPA LATER IN LIFE. THIS PHENOMENON WAS OBSERVED IN HUMANS AND ANIMAL MODELS OF AGGRESSION. THE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO AGGRESSION IS A COMPLEX TRAIT THAT IS REGULATED BY THE INTERACTION BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL AND GENETIC FACTORS. EPIGENETIC MECHANISMS MEDIATE THIS INTERACTION. SUBJECTS EXPOSED TO STRESS EARLY IN LIFE EXHIBITED LONG-TERM EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING THAT CAN INFLUENCE THEIR BEHAVIOUR IN ADULTHOOD. THIS PROGRAMMING AFFECTS EXPRESSION OF MANY GENES NOT ONLY IN THE BRAIN BUT ALSO IN OTHER SYSTEMS SUCH AS NEUROENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE. CONCLUSIONS: THE PROPENSITY TO ADULT CPA BEHAVIOUR IN SUBJECTS EXPERIENCED TO EARLY-LIFE ADVERSITY IS MEDIATED BY EPIGENETIC PROGRAMMING THAT INVOLVES LONG-TERM SYSTEMIC EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS IN A WHOLE GENOME.	2019	
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               
20 4125 19 MECHANISMS OF DISEASE: IN UTERO PROGRAMMING IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF HYPERTENSION. NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CUES DURING DEVELOPMENT CAN PERMANENTLY ALTER THE STRUCTURE, HOMEOSTATIC SYSTEMS, AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BODY. THIS PHENOMENON HAS BEEN REFERRED TO AS 'PROGRAMMING'. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND ANIMAL STUDIES SHOW THAT PROGRAMMED EFFECTS OPERATE WITHIN THE NORMAL RANGE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INFLUENCE THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE IN ADULT LIFE. WE REVIEW THE EVIDENCE THAT THESE EFFECTS INCLUDE REDUCED NEPHRON NUMBER AND COMPENSATORY ADAPTATIONS, WHICH MIGHT LEAD TO HYPERTENSION, AND PERHAPS ACCELERATE THE DECLINE IN RENAL FUNCTION THAT ACCOMPANIES AGING. THESE PROCESSES MIGHT BE EXACERBATED BY PROGRAMMED CHANGES IN VASCULAR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, AND ALTERATIONS IN ENDOCRINE AND METABOLIC HOMEOSTASIS. PROGRAMMED EFFECTS MIGHT BE INITIATED AS EARLY AS THE PERICONCEPTUAL PHASE OF DEVELOPMENT, AND COULD INVOLVE EPIGENETIC CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION OR ALTERED STEM CELL ALLOCATION. BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THESE PROCESSES COULD LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL DIAGNOSTIC AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES, AND TO EARLY DETECTION OF AT-RISK INDIVIDUALS. BY MONITORING BLOOD PRESSURE, WEIGHT, AND RENAL FUNCTION IN CHILDREN, IT MIGHT BE POSSIBLE TO REDUCE THE RISK OF CARDIOVASCULAR AND RENAL DISEASE IN LATER LIFE.	2006